STATE  NORMAL  SCHOOL 

LOS  ANGELES.  CALii^OJiWlA 


OUR  ISLAND  EMPIRE 

A  Hand-Book  of  Cuba, 
Porto  Rico,  Hawaii,  and 
the   Philippine   Islands 

BY     CHARLES     MORRIS 

AUTHOR  OF  "THE  NATION'S  NAVY,"  "THE  WAR 
WITH    SPAIN,"    "HISTORICAL    TALES,"    ETC. 


eo42. 


1M 


J.    B.    LIPPINCOTT    COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA    MDCCCXCIX 


3  C:)  ^-^^ 


Copyright,  1899, 

BY 

J.  B,  LiPPiNcoTT  Company. 


ELtcTBOTTPEO  *N0  Pointed  by  J.  B.  Lippincott  Company,  Phiiaoelphia.  U.S.  A. 


^\n  0 

CONTENTS. 

•  • 

SECTION   L 

CUBA. 

SECTION  PAGE 

I.— Historical  Sketch 7 

II —Physical  Conditions 15 

Extent  and  Situation 15 

The  Mountain  System 17 

Plains  and  Rivers 21 

The  Coastal  System 23 

The  Forest  Region -  25 

Geology 26 

Climate 28 

III,— Natural  Productions 32 

••                     Forest  Trees 32 

Food  Plants  and  Fruits 34 

Animals 38 

Metals 41 

Minerals 44 

IV. — Civil  and  Political  Relations 48 

Governmental  Organization 48 

Divisions  of  Territory 50 

Abolition  of  Slavery 51 

Religion 52 

Means  of  Communication 53 

Population 57 

Education 60 

V. — Centres  of  Population 62 

Havana,  the  Capital  City 62 

Matanzas .  'jj 

Cardenas 80 

Other  Northern  Ports 81 

Santiago  de  Cuba 83 

Trinidad 88 

Cienfuegos 89 

Inland  Cities 91 

Health  Resorts 94 

iii 


iv  CONTENTS. 

SBCTION  PAGB 

VI.— Manners  and  Customs 96 

City  Life 96 

P'ood  and  Beverages 104 

Street  Scenes 108 

The  Gambling  Propensity 112 

Rural  Life 116 

VIL— Agriculiural  Productions 124 

Coffee 124 

Tobacco 132 

Sugar 136 

Live-Stock 144 

VIII. — Manufactures  and  Commerce 149 

Cigars 149 

Commerce 151 

Finances 156 

The  Future  Outlook 159 

•  • 

SECTION   IL 

PORTO  RICO. 

I.— Historical  Sketch 165 

II.— Physical  Conditions 171 

Size  and  Situation 171 

Rivers  and  Lakes 173 

Islands 174 

Harbors 175 

Geology 177 

Climate 178 

III. — Natural  Productions 181 

Plant  Life 181 

Animal  Life 183 

Minerals 184 

IV.— Civil  and  Political  Relations 186 

Government  and  Religion 186 

Roads  and  Railways 187 

Population 189 

Education 192 

v.— Centres  of  Population 194 

General  Conditions 194 

San  Juan 194 


CONTENTS.  V 

SKCTIOM  TAGS 

Ponce igg 

Mayaguez 200 

Other  Seaports 201 

Inland  Towns 202 

VI.— Manners  and  Customs      205 

The  Spanish  Class 205 

The  Peasant  Class 206 

VII. — Agricultural  Industries 210 

Fertility  of  the  Soil 210 

Farm  Crops 212 

Live-Stock 217 

VIII.— Manufactures  and  Commerce 219 

Articles  of  Manufacture 219 

Commerce 219 

Finances 223 

Future  Prospects 225 

•  • 

SECTION   IIL 

HAWAIL 

I.— Historical  Sketch ^ 228 

II. — Physical  Conditions 237 

Geographical  Relations 237 

Geological  Formation 239 

Mountain  System 240 

Volcanoes 241 

Plains  and  Valleys 245 

Harbors 247 

Climate 248 

Rainfall 250 

Diseases 251 

III.— Natural  Productions 253 

Forest  and  Fruit  Trees 253 

Useful  Plants 258 

Native  Animals 261 

Introduced  Animals 263 

rv.— Civil  and  Political  Relations , 266 

Territory  of  Hawaii 266 

Population 267 


vi  CONTENTS. 

SBCTION  PAGB 

Education 270 

Religion 271 

Public  Works 273 

v.— Centres  of  Population 278 

Honolulu 278 

Hilo 283 

Lahaina 285 

Kailua 285 

VI.— The  People  of  Hawaii 287 

The  Native  Population 287 

Dwellings  and  Food 293 

Inhabitants  of  Foreign  Origin 295 

VII. — Agricultural  Industries 299 

General  Conditions 299 

Sugar  Production 300 

Coffee  Culture 306 

Other  Agricultural  Products 309 

Grazing  Industries 312 

Bird  Products 314 

VIII. — Manufactures  and  Commerce ,  .  317 

Mechanical  Industries 317 

Commerce 318 

Shipping 320 

Finances 321 

*  • 

SECTION   IV. 

THE  PHILIPPINE  ISLANDS. 

I.— Historical  Sketch 323 

II.— Physical  Conditions 334 

Geography 334 

Geology 337 

Volcanoes 339 

Luzon 342 

Mindanao 343 

The  Smaller  Islands 344 

Harbors 347 

Climate      349 

Diseases 352 


CONTENTS.  vii 

SECTION  PAGB 

-  III.— Natural  Productions 356 

Forest  Trees 35^ 

Fruit  and  Food  Plants 361 

Animal  Life 362 

Metals 367 

Minerals 37i 

IV.— Civil  and  Political  Relations 373 

Government     373 

Religion 37^ 

Public  Works 381 

Population 3^4 

The  Civilized  Natives 386 

The  Wild  Tribes 393 

Education      39^ 

V. — Centres  of  Population 399 

Manila 399 

Iloilo c 410 

Cebu 4" 

Other  Towns 412 

VI.— THE  People  of  the  Philippines 416 

Character  of  the  Natives 416 

Dwellings,  Food,  and  Dress 423 

Popular  Amusements 428 

The  Mestizos 434 

The  Moros 436 

The  Wild  Tribes 439 

The  Aetas,  or  Negritos 440 

VII.— Agricultural  Industries 443 

Manila  Hemp 443 

Sugar 446 

Tobacco 45° 

Rice 451 

Coffee 453 

Other  Vegetable  Products 455 

Live-Stock 4S8 

VIII. — Manufactures  and  Commerce 460 

Cigars 460 

Other  Manufactures 4^1 

Commerce 4^3 

Finances 4^7 

The  Future  Outlook 4^9 


PREFACE. 


The  United  States  of  America,  after  more  than  a 
century  of  continental  growth  and  development,  has, 
upon  the  threshold  of  the  Twentieth  Century,  taken  a 
new  and  radical  step  forward  in  its  national  career, 
having  added  to  its  dominions  a  large  number  of  tropi- 
cal islands,  situated  on  the  opposite  sides  of  the  earth, 
and  inhabited  by  peoples  strikingly  distinct  from  those 
of  the  great  republic  of  the  West.  The  question,  What 
shall  we  do  with  them?  is  one  which  necessarily  arises, 
but  which  only  time  and  experience  can  answer. 
Some  of  these  islands  have  been  accepted  as  territorial 
acquisitions  of  the  United  States;  others  stand  at 
present  as  wards  of  the  republic,  their  future  status  left 
open  to  the  decision  of  events.  In  the  new  and  un- 
tried situation  into  which  this  country  has  entered,  any 
hasty  settlement  of  these  momentous  problems  would 
be  unwise  and  might  prove  disastrous.  A  period  of 
watching  and  waiting  is  what  wisdom  dictates, — of 
drifting  on  the  tide  of  events  until  circumstances  shall 
point  the  way  and  judgment  grow  mature.  This  is 
not  as  many  would  have  it.  There  are  numbers  eager 
to  settle  all  questions  in  a  breath,  ready  to  adopt  the 
first  half-considered  decision — and  repent  at  leisure. 
Fortunately,  this  is  not  the  sentiment  of  those  into 
whose  hands  this  problem  has  fallen,  and  who  are  feel- 
ing their  way  with  commendable  slowness  and  grave 


X  PREFACE. 

consideration  to  a  judicious  solution  of  each  question 
as  it  arises. 

The  decision  rests  not  alone  in  the  hands  of  the 
legislative  and  executive  branches  of  the  government, 
but  in  those  of  the  people  as  well.  An  enlightened 
public  opinion  is  an  important  element  in  the  situation, 
and  to  the  formation  of  such  a  just  conception  of  the 
circumstances  some  degree  of  acquaintance  with  the 
conditions  of  these  island  acquisitions  is  highly  im- 
portant. It  is  for  this  purpose,  in  part,  that  the  present 
work  has  been  prepared, — to  give  the  people  of  the 
United  States  a  general  knowledge  of  the  problem 
they  have  taken  in  hand,  through  a  succinct  descrip- 
tion of  these  new  island  dominions,  their  natural 
conditions,  physical  resources,  and  the  character  and 
modes  of  life  and  thought  of  their  populations,  as  a 
guide  to  an  enlightened  decision  as  to  what  had  best 
be  done  with  them. 

This  is  only  one  of  the  purposes — and  not  the  main 
one — that  the  author  has  had  in  view.  There  is  a 
natural  feeling  of  interest  concerning  these  islands, 
based  partly  on  the  usual  desire  to  know,  partly  on 
more  personal  motives,  which  it  is  important  to 
gratify.  There  are  some  who  have  it  in  view  to  visit 
one  or  more  of  these  islands,  ior  business  or  observa- 
tion, or  for  permanent  residence;  others  who  desire 
to  enter  into  business  relations  with  their  merchants 
or  producers;  and  many  others  who  are  moved  by  the 
natural  thirst  for  information,  which  recent  events 
have  directed  strongly  towards  these  oceanic  lands. 

"  Our  Island  Empire"  is  designed  to  cover  all  the 
points  here  adverted  to,  and  to  give  in  a  single  volume 
of   moderate   size   the   information    which    elsewhere 


PREFACE.  xi 

would  need  to  be  sought  in  many  distinct  works.  It 
embraces  a  comprehensive  description,  from  various 
points  of  view,  of  Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Hawaiian 
and  PhiHppine  Islands,  including  their  extent  and 
situation,  natural  and  industrial  productions,  govern- 
mental conditions,  public  works,  population,  com- 
merce and  manufactures,  and  all  other  matters  of 
general  interest  concerning  them,  being  prepared  with 
the  view  that,  from  this  one  work,  the  reading  public 
may  obtain  an  intelligent  and  satisfactory  acquaint- 
ance with  the  leading  facts  concerning  these  new 
wards  and  colonies  of  our  home  country. 

In  gaining  these  tropical  islands,  the  United  States 
has  entered  into  a  new  and  important  business  and 
political  relation  with  the  nations  of  the  world.  Widely 
separated  as  they  are,  they  possess  a  remarkable  simi- 
larity in  production,  to  which  a  brief  allusion  may  here 
be  made.  Sugar  is  the  leading  product  of  most  of 
them  and  an  important  product  of  them  all.  Cofifee 
and  tobacco  form  other  valuable  crops.  The  only 
vegetable  product  of  mercantile  importance  special  to 
any  one  of  them  is  the  Manila  hemp  of  the  Philip- 
pines. In  their  great  variety  of  tropical  fruits  they 
present  a  like  similarity.  By  their  acquisition,  this 
country  adds  widely  to  the  scope  of  its  vegetable 
productions,  gaining  a  leading  place  among  the  sugar 
and  tobacco  producers  of  the  world,  and  a  very  promi- 
nent one  among  the  producers  of  cofifee  and  various 
other  food  substances.  Its  commerce  with  these 
countries  bids  fair  to  gain  a  great  development,  and 
their  productiveness  to  be  enormously  enhanced  under 
the  stimulus  of  American  capital  and  enterprise. 

Politically,  the  outlook  may  prove  a  similarly  broad 


xii  PREFACE. 

one.  This  country  has  hfted  the  anchors  which 
hitherto  held  it  fast  to  the  American  continent,  and 
has  drifted  far  over  the  seas  into  that  arena  of  colonial 
international  relations  from  which  it  has  heretofore 
striven  to  keep  clear.  What  the  result  will  be  no  man 
can  predict.  We  have  primitive  populations  to  civilize, 
indolent  populations  to  stimulate,  hostile  populations 
to  pacify,  ignorant  populations  to  educate,  oppressed 
populations  to  lift  into  manhood  and  teach  the  princi- 
ples of  liberty  and  the  art  of  self-government.  And 
we  are  thrown  suddenly  into  the  turbid  maelstrom  of 
the  Eastern  Question,  with  its  impending  problem  of 
the  possible  partition  of  the  ancient  empire  of  China 
among  a  host  of  land-hungry  applicants. 

Whether  or  not  the  United  States  will  be  forced  to 
take  a  hand  in  this  great  game,  or  what  controlling  in- 
fluence in  the  direction  of  justice  and  discretion  it  may 
exercise  over  the  result,  are  subjects  with  which  the 
writer  of  this  work  does  not  undertake  to  deal.  It  has 
been  his  object  simply  to  present  the  elements  of  the 
situation;  to  give  readers  some  definite  general  idea 
of  the  character  and  conditions  of  the  new  acquisitions 
of  the  United  States;  to  ofTer  the  facts  of  the  case  and 
leave  to  them  the  forming  of  what  they  may  consider 
the  just  and  proper  conclusions  from,  these  premises. 
There  are  two  sides  to  this  as  to  every  question;  but 
the  wise  man  will  take  neither  side  until  he  has  learned 
all  that  the  question  involves,  and  in  acquiring  such 
information  it  is  hoped  that  he  will  find  this  work  of 
practical  value. 


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OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

•  •  • 

306,1, 
SECTION  I. 

CUBA. 

•  •• 

L  HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

It  was  on  the  28th  of  October,  1492,  that  the  eyes  of 
white  men  first  fell  upon  the  green  shores  of  Cuba,  the 
largest,  richest,  and  most  important  of  that  tropical 
island  group  since  known  as  the  West  Indies.  Colum- 
bus was  enchanted  by  its  verdant  charm  and  desig- 
nated it  as  "  the  most  beautiful  land  that  eye  ever 
saw."  He  named  the  island  Juana,  in  honor  of  Prince 
Juan,  son  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain.  After 
the  death  of  Ferdinand  the  name  was  changed  to 
Fernandina.  It  was  afterwards  named  Santiago,  from 
the  patron  saint  of  Spain,  and  subsequently  Ave  Maria, 
in  honor  of  the  Virgin.  But  all  these  names  have 
given  way  to  that  of  Cuba,  the  title  applied  to  it  by  its 
native  inhabitants. 

Columbus  made  two  other  visits  to  this  newly  dis- 
covered land,  in  1494  and  again  in  1502.  It  was  first 
circumnavigated  and  proved  to  be  an  island  in  1508, 
and  in  151 1  Diego  Columbus,  the  son  of  the  dis- 
coverer, fitted  out  an  expedition  for  its  colonization. 

7 


8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  tirst  settlement  was  made  at  Baracoa.  In  1514 
Santiago  and  Trinidad  were  settled,  and  in  151 5  a 
town  named  San  Cristoval  de  la  Havana.  This  is  now 
known  as  Batabano,  the  name  Havana  having  been  in 
1 519  transferred  to  the  site  of  the  present  capital, 
which  was  founded  in  that  year. 

The  Indian  inhabitants  of  Cuba  are  described  as  a 
tranquil  and  happy  people,  living  in  peaceful  enjoy-" 
ment  of  their  rich  island,  and  welcoming  the  whites  as 
a  superior  race.  Only  one  of  their  chiefs  opposed  the 
invasion  of  the  island,  Hatuey,  a  fugitive  from  His- 
paniola,  whose  people  had  been  treated  w'ith  shameful 
cruelty  by  the  Spanish  settlers.  He  was  repaid  for  his 
patriotism  by  being  burned  alive  as  a  fugitive  slave. 
His  fellows  soon  followed  him  to  the  grave.  The 
population  of  the  island  at  that  time  has  been  estimated 
at  three  hundred  thousand.  Few  of  these  survived  at 
the  end  of  the  century.  Enslaved  and  forced  to  severe 
and  unaccustomed  labor,  they  died  rapidly  under  the 
lash  of  their  heartless  masters,  while  their  occasional 
insurrections  were  quelled  with  a  sanguinary  cruelty 
that  aided  greatly  in  their  disappearance.  Their  place 
was  taken  by  negro  slaves,  who  grew  numerous  after 
1580,  at  which  period  the  cultivation  of  tobacco  and 
sugar-cane  became  active  industries.  The  rearing  of 
cattle  had  previously  been  the  principal  occupation  of 
the  settlers. 

The  Spaniards  did  not  find  Cuba  a  haven  of  peace- 
As  early  as  1538  Havana  was  attacked  and  burned  by 
a  French  privateer,  and  in  1554  it  was  again  taken  and 
destroyed  by  the  French.  The  first  invasion  led  to  the 
building,  by  the  famous  Fernando  de  Soto,  of  the  forti- 
fication known  as  the  Castillo  de  la  Fuerza,  and  the 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH.  9 

second  to  the  erection  of  the  Morro  and  the  Punta, 
ancient  works  of  defence  which  still  exist. 

For  nearly  two  centuries  subsequently  the  people  of 
Cuba  were  kept  in  a  state  of  dread  by  the  privateers 
and  freebooters  who  infested  its  waters,  and  at  inter- 
vals invaded  its  shores.  The  daring  mariners  of  Eng- 
land, France,  and  Holland  held  the  Spanish  galleons 
to  be  free  spoil,  and  the  buccaneers  of  the  West  Indies 
added  to  their  piracy  on  the  high  seas  the  capture  and 
sack  of  the  cities  of  New  Spain. 

These  minor  acts  of  hostility  were  succeeded,  in 
1762,  by  an  invasion  in  force, — a  British  fleet  and  army 
under  Lord  Albemarle  making  a  vigorous  assault  on 
the  harbor  and  city  of  Havana.  The  fleet  consisted  of 
nineteen  ships  of  the  line,  six  frigates,  and  nearly  two 
hundred  transports;  the  army  of  about  fourteen  thou- 
sand men.  The  walls  of  Havana  were  manned  by  a 
Spanish  force  of  nearly  double  this  strength,  mainly 
volunteers,  who  made  an  obstinate  defence.  For  two 
months  of  the  sickly  summer  season  the  siege  con- 
tinued, disease  proving  a  far  more  deadly  foe  to  the 
besiegers  than  the  guns  of  the  enemy.  The  afifair  was 
decided  by  a  reinforcement  of  twenty-three  hundred 
men  from  Connecticut,  New  York,  and  New  Jersey, 
led  by  Generals  Putnam  and  Lyman,  heroes  of  the 
French  and  Indian  War.  Their  coming  gave  heart  to 
the  British  and  discouraged  the  Spaniards,  and  the 
city,  vigorously  assailed,  surrendered  on  August  14. 
The  terms  of  surrender  included  about  one-fourth  of 
the  island,  and  the  whole  of  Cuba  might  readily  have 
been  made  British  territory;  but  it  was  restored  to 
Spain  by  treaty  in  the  following  February. 

The  only  advantage  to  the  victors  of  this  futile  con- 


lo  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

(|uest  was  a  fleet  of  Spanish  ships  taken  in  the  harbor, 
and  a  spoil  in  gold  and  silver  to  the  value  of  about 
$3,600,000,  which  the  invaders,  like  so  many  free- 
booters, divided  among  themselves.  There  were  com- 
paratively few  to  share  this  rich  booty.  The  deadly 
climate  had  swept  off  the  invaders  in  hosts.  Of  the 
Americans,  Trumbull  tells  us  that  "  scarcely  any  of  the 
private  soldiers,  and  but  few  of  the  officers,  ever  re- 
turned. Such  as  were  not  killed  in  the  service  were 
generally  swept  away  by  the  great  mortality  which  pre- 
vailed in  the  fleet  and  army." 

The  prosperity  of  Cuba  under  the  Spaniards  dates 
from  this  period.  The  first  census,  taken  in  1773, 
yielded  a  total  population,  black  and  white,  of  only 
171,620.  It  has  increased  nearly  tenfold  since  that 
date,  the  latest  census  giving  a  population  of  over 
1,600,000.  Luis  de  Las  Casas,  who  became  captain- 
general  in  1790,  was  indefatigable  in  his  eiTorts  for  the 
advancement  of  the  island.  He  introduced  the  culture 
of  indigo,  did  his  utmost  to  remove  the  restrictions 
upon  commerce,  and  promoted  a  series  of  highly  use- 
ful public  works.  His  wise  administration  kept  Cuba 
tranquil  during  the  revolution  in  San  Domingo,  and 
the  French  emigrants  from  that  island  introduced  into 
Cuba  the  culture  of  cofifee,  which  became  a  flourishing 
industry. 

The  reign  of  oppression  in  Cuba  became  pro- 
nounced after  1825,  in  which  year  King  Ferdinand  of 
Spain,  incensed  by  the  loss  of  his  dominions  upon  the 
main-land,  issued  a  decree  which  gave  the  captain- 
generals  almost  absolute  authority  over  the  island,  be- 
stowing on  them  the  powers  "  which  by  the  royal 
ordinances  are  granted  to  the  governors  of  besieged 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH.  ii 

cities."  They  were  given  "  ample  and  unbounded 
power"  to  exile  from  Cuba  any  official  of  whom  they 
disapproved,  and  to  suspend,  at  their  own  free-will,  the 
execution  of  any  order  or  provision  concerning  the 
administration. 

The  effect  of  such  a  decree,  giving  autocratic  power 
to  a  succession  of  men  chosen  for  political  reasons, 
none  of  them  natives  of  the  island,  and  many  of  them 
seeking  it  with  the  purpose  of  acquiring  a  fortune  by 
any  available  means,  may  be  imagined.  Some  of  these 
men  have  acted  honorably;  others  have  made  for 
themselves  a  record  of  infamy.  Not  only  were  the 
captain-generals,  but  practically  all  the  officials  of  the 
island,  sent  from  Spain;  the  people  of  Cuba  being  ex- 
cluded from  office,  exposed  to  illegal  exactions  of  all 
kinds,  heavily  taxed  to  support  a  standing  army  and 
navy,  and  deprived  of  civil,  political,  and  religious 
liberty. 

The  result  of  this  method  of  colonial  government 
has  been  a  bitter  and  intense  hatred  of  the  Spanish 
officials  by  the  native  population,  and  a  series  of  in- 
surrections and  filibuster  invasions,  occurring  at  in- 
tervals until  1868,  in  which  year  began  a  rebellion  of 
ten  years'  duration.  For  the  suppression  of  this  for- 
midable revolt,  Spain  sent  more  than  150,000  soldiers^ 
commanded  by  her  ablest  generals,  to  Cuba;  but  in 
the  end,  hopeless  of  success,  was  forced  to  offer  favor- 
able terms  to  the  insurrectionists  and  promise  the  peo- 
ple a  series  of  reforms.  These  terms  the  Cubans, 
equally  hopeless  of  success,  accepted;  but  their  leaders 
took  care  to  leave  the  island,  having  no  great  faith  in 
Spanish  honor. 

The  promised  reforms  did  not  touch  the  office  of  the 


12  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

captain-general,  who  retained  his  autocratic  power  and 
his  absolute  control  of  the  administration.  The  island 
was  divided  into  its  present  provinces,  provincial  as- 
semblies were  instituted,  and  representation  in  the 
Spanish  Cortes  was  granted.  But  these  reforms  were 
manipulated  in  the  interest  of  the  Spanish  party;  taxa- 
tion continued  as  heavy  as  ever,  the  officials  as  cor- 
rupt, frauds  as  prevalent,  salaries  and  perquisites  as 
high,  and  the  restrictions  on  commerce  as  severe, 
while  the  debt  of  the  island  grew  with  a  discouraging 
rapidity  in  view  of  the  fact  that  hardly  a  dollar  of  it 
w^as  spent  in  the  interest  of  the  islanders. 

This  state  of  affairs  had  its  natural  outcome  in  a  new 
insurrection,  which  broke  out  in  February,  1895,  and 
which  for  three  years  Spain  sought  in  vain  to  suppress, 
though  she  sent  200,000  men  to  the  island,  and  used 
measures  whose  barbarity  aroused  a  wide-spread  sen- 
timent of  indignation.  Imprisonment  of  terrible  se- 
verity, massacre  of  non-combatants,  and  similar  atroci- 
ties did  not  suffice.  Under  the  administration  of  Cap- 
tain-General Weyler  the  country  people  were  driven 
in  multitudes  from  their  homes,  their  houses  and  crops 
destroyed,  and  they  concentrated  around  the  cities  and 
forts,  where  it  is  estimated  that  more  than  200,000  of 
them  died  miserably  of  disease  and  starvation. 

This  frightful  cruelty  aroused  an  irrepressible  indig- 
nation in  the  United  States,  in  which  country  sym- 
pathy for  the  suffering  Cubans  had  for  many  years 
prevailed.  Earnest  efforts  were  made  by  the  charitable 
to  feed  the  starving,  and  a  strong  sentiment  in  favor 
of  warlike  aid  to  the  insurrectionists  arose.  All  hopes 
of  a  peaceful  solution  of  the  difficulty  vanished  in  Feb- 
ruary, 1898,  when  the  United  States  battle-ship  Maine 


HISTORICAL   SKETCH.  13 

was  blown  up  by  a  submarine  mine  in  Havana  harbor 
and  sent  to  the  bottom  with  three-fourths  of  her  crew. 
This  fatal  act,  to  whomsoever  due,  put  an  end  to  hesi- 
tation. Congress  reflected  the  warlike  sentiment  of 
the  people;  all  efforts  to  avert  hostilities  proved  futile; 
and  on  April  21  war  between  the  United  States  and 
Spain  began,  the  American  fleet  being  sent  to  block- 
ade the  port  of  Havana  and  the  adjoining  portion  of 
the  Cuban  coast. 

Within  four  months  thereafter  the  war  was  at  an 
end  and  Cuba  was  free,  the  Spanish  fleet  having  been 
destroyed  ofif  Santiago  harbor,  the  Spanish  army  de- 
feated in  a  severe  engagement,  and  the  city  and  garri- 
son of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  with  the  neighboring  terri- 
tory, surrendered  to  the  United  States  army.  By  the 
terms  of  the  peace  protocol,  signed  August  12,  1898, 
Spain  agreed  to  remove  all  her  forces  from  Cuba,  to 
whose  people  the  United  States  Congress  had  guaran- 
teed an  independent  government,  and  the  century  of 
oppression  was  at  an  end.  Subsequent  negotiations 
fixed  the  ist  of  January,  1899,  as  the  date  of  final 
evacuation  of  the  island  by  Spain,  and  on  that  day  the 
United  States  entered  into  temporary  military  occu- 
pation, to  be  continued  until  a  stable  government  of 
the  island  should  be  established  by  the  Cubans. 

This  rapid  historical  review  is  ofifered  as  preliminary 
to  our  main  purpose  of  description,  with  the  purpose 
of  showing  in  general  outline  the  causes  leading  up  to 
the  present  condition  of  afifairs  in  the  island  of  Cuba. 
Some  such  result  as  that  which  has  occurred  was  in- 
evitable, sooner  or  later.  The  colonial  policy  of  Spain 
was  so  irritating  to  all  right-thinking  nations,  and  in 
particular  to  the  American  people,  as  to  grow  yearly 


14  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

more  difficult  to  endure,  and  her  methods  of  warfare 
became  in  the  end  so  intolerable  that  the  United  States 
could  not  avoid  coming  to  the  aid  of  the  oppressed. 
What  will  be  the  final  result  it  is  too  soon  to  say.  The 
Cubans  may  prove  capable  of  self-government,  and 
they  may  not.  In  the  latter  case,  the  only  solution  of 
the  problem  seems  to  be  the  absorption  of  Cuba  by  the 
United  States. 


IL  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS. 

EXTENT  AND  SITUATION. 

Cuba,  the  Queen  of  the  Antilles,  as  it  is  frequently 
called,  lies  wholly  within  the  tropics,  and  not  far  south 
of  the  main-land  of  the  United  States,  the  channel 
separating  it  from  Florida  being  130  miles  wide.  A 
second  channel,  of  somewhat  less  width,  divides  it 
from  the  nearest  portion  of  Yucatan.  Narrower  chan- 
nels lie  between  it  and  the  neighboring  islands  of  the 
Bahamas,  Jamaica,  and  Hayti.  It  is  bathed  on  the 
south  by  the  waters  of  the  Caribbean  Sea,  on  the  north 
by  the  Atlantic  Ocean,  and  on  the  northwest  by  the 
Gulf  of  Mexico,  its  nearest  United  States  neighbor 
being  the  island  of  Key  West,  eighty-six  miles  distant. 

Cuba  is  a  long,  narrow,  crescent-shaped  island,  its 
convex  side  turned  to  the  north.  It  has  been  com- 
pared in  shape  to  a  bird's  tongue,  and  also,  in  view  of 
its  peculiar  eastern  expansion,  to  a  hammer-headed 
shark.  It  extends  through  eleven  degrees  of  longi- 
tude (74°  to  85°  W.),  and  through  about  four  degrees 
of  latitude  (19°  50'  to  23°  10'  N.);  it  is  crossed  by  the 
meridian  of  Washington  about  200  miles  from  Cape 
Maisi,  its  eastern  extremity.  The  length  in  a  direct 
line  is  about  760  miles,  but  following  a  curved  line 
through  its  centre  it  may  measure  more  than  800 
miles.  It  averages  about  eighty  miles  in  width.  Near 
its  eastern  end,  on  the  meridian  of  Manzanillo,  it  at- 
tains a  width  estimated  at  from  125  to  140  miles,  while 

15 


i6  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

in  tlie  vicinity  of  Havana  it  narrows  to  about  thirty 
miles,  and  at  Maricl,  its  narrowest  point,  to  twenty- 
four  miles.  To  f^ain  a  conception  of  its  size  as  com- 
pared with  American  distances,  it  may  be  said  that  if 
laid  down  on  our  northern  States  it  would  extend  from 
New  York  to  the  vicinity  of  Chicago;  while  its  widtlf 
near  Havana  would  stretch  about  from  Baltimore  to 
W'^ashington;  near  Santiago,  from  New  York  to  Al- 
bany. 

In  actual  dimensions  Cuba  approaches  closely  to  the 
State  of  Pennsylvania  (45,215  square  miles),  its  area, 
including  its  coastal  islands,  being  given  as  45,883 
square  miles.  South  of  its  western  section,  crossed  by 
the  meridian  of  Havana,  lies  the  Isle  of  Pines  (Isla 
de  Pinos),  of  1214  square  miles  area,  while  the  many 
small  islands  have  a  combined  area  of  about  1350 
square  miles.  The  coast  line  is  about  2200  miles  in 
length,  or  nearly  7000  miles  if  all  its  numerous  in- 
dentations be  included. 

The  island,  through  much  of  its  extent,  possesses  a 
low,  flat  coast,  subject  to  frequent  floods,  and  contain- 
ing many  large  lagoons,  especially  on  the  north,  their 
only  commercial  use  being  their  yield  of  salt.  A  screen 
of  islands,  keys,  banks,  and  reefs,  grouped  into  four 
archipelagoes,  extends  along  much  of  the  coast,  ren- 
dering navigation  difficult  and  dangerous, — in  many 
places  impossible.  Yet  this  is  by  no  means  wholly  the 
case,  about  half  the  coast  line  being  free  from  these 
obstructions,  while  no  island,  in  proportion  to  its  ex- 
tent, surpasses  Cuba  in  harbors,  many  of  them  acces- 
sible to  the  largest  ships.  These  generally  have  nar- 
row entrances,  but  open  into  spacious  bays  within,  and 
ofifer  commodious  shelter  and  easy  defence.    Of  those 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  17 

on  the  north  may  be  named  the  ports  of  Bahia  Honda, 
Mariel,  Havana,  Matanzas,  Cardenas,  Nuevitas,  and 
Nipe;  on  the  south  are  the  spacious  harbors  of  Guan- 
tanamo,  Santiago  de  Cuba,  Trinidad,  and  Cienfuegos. 
The  island  in  all  is  said  to  have  fifty-four  ports,  fifteen 
of  which  are  open  to  commerce. 

Cuba  occupies  a  very  favorable  position  for  com- 
merce, lying,  as  it  does,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Gulf 
of  Mexico,  the  northern  and  southern  entrances  to 
which  extend  past  its  shores,  and  being  in  such  close 
proximity  to  the  United  States,  Central  America,  and 
South  America.  Its  capital,  Havana,  has  in  conse- 
quence been  designated  the  "  Key  to  the  New  World^ 

THE  MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM. 

Cuba  has  a  backbone  of  highlands,  rising  in  the  east 
to  mountainous  elevation,  and  extending  from  end  to 
end  of  the  island,  while  from  their  northern  and  south- 
ern slopes  plains  stretch  to  the  bordering  seas.  They 
now  approach  the  north  coast,  now  the  south,  and  now 
follow  the  centre  of  the  island,  but  are  not  continuous, 
being  broken  into  groups,  between  which  lie  rolling 
uplands,  or  in  some  regions  low  plains  only  a  few  hun- 
dred feet  above  sea  level.  Extending,  of  varying 
height,  from  Cape  San  Antonio  in  the  west  to  Cape 
Maisi  in  the  east,  the  chain  here  turns  westward  again, 
and  follows  the  southern  coast  line  past  Santiago  to 
Cape  Cruz.  This  extension  causes  a  marked  widening 
of  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  to  which  it  gives 
a  triangular  form.  The  total  length  of  the  highlands 
approaches  looo  miles,  and  they  occupy  about  one- 
fourth  of  the  total  area. 

It  may  give  a  wrong  impression  to  designate  this 


i8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

as  a  mountain  ran.c^c.  as  is  ordinarily  done,  it  being 
more  correct  to  speak  of  it  as  a  watershed,  out  of 
which,  or  adjacent  to  which,  rise  mountainous  peaks 
or  short  independent  ranges,  but  whose  ordinary 
height  is  from  lOO  to  400  feet,  and  occasionally  less. 
In  the  east  it  rises  into  a  complex  mass  of  mountains 
with  fertile  valleys  between  their  heights. 

The  coast  range  between  Cape  Maisi  and  Cape  Cruz, 
known  through  much  of  its  length  as  the  Sierra  Maes- 
tra,  or  Master  Mountains,  contains  the  highest  eleva- 
tions on  the  island,  its  loftiest  summit  being  the  Pico 
de  Turquino,  8320  feet  or  more  in  height,  and  lying 
midway  between  Cape  Cruz  and  Santiago.  Between 
Turquino  and  the  city  of  Santiago  the  range  takes  the 
subordinate  name  of  Sierra  de  CobrQ,  or  Copper 
Mountains,  from  their  containing  the  copper  mines  of 
the  Santiago  district. 

From  Santiago  eastward  the  southern  and  central 
ranges  are  joined  by  lateral  spurs,  the  W'hole  forming 
an  intricate  series  of  elevations,  forest  clad,  and  cut 
into  sharp  ridges  known  as  cuchillas,  or  "  knife-edged" 
crests,  as  distinguished  from  the  sierras,  or  ''  saws." 
These  connecting  ridges  break  up  the  country  into  a 
-maze  of  precipitous  elevations,  which  render  the  east- 
ern half  of  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  a  country 
very  difficult  to  traverse  and  little  known.  In  this  dis- 
trict, with  its  few  and  poor  roads,  its  dense  forests,  its 
sudden  ascents  and  descents,  its  pathless  intricacies, 
the  insurrection  long  held  its  own,  its  numerous  lurk- 
ing places,  caves,  and  defiles  enabling  the  insurgents 
to  defy  pursuit. 

This  broken  and  rock-bound  country  is,  in  diversity 
of  products  and  beauties  of  nature,  one  of  the  most 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  19 

attractive  in  the  world.  Its  many  changes  of  eleva- 
tion, with  the  consequent  rapid  variations  in  cHmate, 
people  it  with  a  remarkable  variety  of  plants, — orchids, 
palms,  and  others, — many  of  them  bearing  rich-hued 
tropical  flowers,  while  insect  life  may  be  seen  here  in 
its  gayest  colors  and  greatest  abundance.  Add  to 
these  features  of  attraction  the  frequent  cascades  due 
to  the  numerous  streams  and  abundant  rainfall,  the 
richness  of  the  verdure,  the  striking  rock  portals  and 
other  forms  of  mountain  architecture,  and  we  have  in 
the  cuchillas  a  varied  array  of  nature's  charms  which 
few  other  localities  present. 

The  central  chain  displays  near  its  eastern  ex- 
tremity, back  of  the  port  of  Baracoa,  a  striking  peak 
over  3000  feet  high,  long  known  to  navigators  as  El 
Yunque  de  Baracoa  ("  The  Anvil  of  Baracoa").  As 
the  harbor  of  Nipe  is  approached  the  mountains  de- 
crease considerably  in  height,  and  by  the  time  the  bay 
of  Nuevitas  is  reached  they  vanish  as  a  range,  only 
detached  groups  appearing  at  intervals.  One  of  these, 
the  Sierra  de  Cubitas,  north  of  the  city  of  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, has  been  long  noted  for  its  great  caves,  and  came 
into  prominence  during  the  recent  msurrection  as  the 
place  of  retreat  of  President  Cisneros  and  his  cabinet, 
the  officials  of  the  insurgent  government.  Between 
the  Cubitas  group  and  that  of  Bamburanao,  in  the 
province  of  Santa  Clara,  the  island  narrows  to  a  width 
of  less  than  fifty  miles,  and  sinks  nearly  to  sea  level. 
Across  this  region  extended  the  first  military  trocha, 
a  line  of  forts,  wire  fences,  and  timber  breastworks 
established  for  the  purpose  of  checking  the  movements 
and  dividing  the  forces  of  the  rebels. 

Farther  west  the  highlands  approach  the  southern 


20  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

shore,  the  Sierra  de  San  Juan  y  Trinidad  extending 
from  Trinidad  to  Cicnfucgos  and  beyond.  Imme- 
diately back  of  the  harbor  of  Trinidad  rises  the  peak 
of  Potrillo,  an  elevation  of  about  3000  feet  altitude. 
As  Alatanzas  is  approached  the  northern  highlands 
rise  into  the  Pan  de  Matanzas  (1300  feet),  a  sugar-loaf 
peak  famous  among  mariners,  as  enabling  them  to 
get  their  bearings  off  a  dangerous  coast. 

Westward  from  Matanzas  the  mountain  ridge  grows 
more  continuous,  culminating  in  a  peak  2000  feet  high, 
beyond  which  it  gradually  sinks  and  finally  disappears 
in  the  sandy  and  marshy  region  of  Cape  San  An- 
tonio. The  flatness  of  this  end  of  the  island  is  in 
marked  contrast  to  the  lofty  elevations  with  which 
it  terminates  at  Cape  Alaisi  in  the  east.  At  Mariel, 
west  of  Havana,  is  the  narrowest  part  of  the  island,  a 
depressed  region  across  which  General  Weyler  built 
his  celebrated  trocha  in  1896. 

As  may  be  seen,  the  ridge  varies  greatly  in  height, 
now  attaining  considerable  elevation,  now  descending 
almost  to  sea  level.  The  only  continuous  chain  is  the 
Sierra  Maestra,  in  the  extension  to  Cape  Cruz.  This 
southeastern  sierra  forms  a  great  calcareous  mass,  its 
summits  usually  naked  and  rocky.  The  central  and 
western  mountains  are  largely  composed  of  compact 
limestone,  which  has  been  excavated  by  subterranean 
waters  into  numerous  caverns,  some  being  of  great 
extent  and  striking  beauty.  These  were  utilized  by 
the  insurgents  during  the  insurrection  as  places  of 
shelter  and  concealment.  Some  of  the  mountain 
peaks,  such  as  that  of  Turquino,  show  indications  of 
former  volcanic  action,  though  no  active  volcanoes 
now  exist.    Earthquakes  occasionally  occur,  Santiago 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  21 

de  Cuba  province  being  their  chief  location.     Those 
of  1776,  1842,  and  1852  were  of  great  severity. 

PLAINS  AND  RIVERS. 

Occupying  the  spaces  between  the  isolated  moun- 
tain groups,  and  extending  in  rolling  slopes  from  the 
mountains  to  the  coasts,  lie  the  fertile  plains  of  the 
island,  a  productive  region  of  lowlands  which  com- 
prise much  the  greater  part  of  the  area  of  Cuba, 
and  whose  richly  fertile  soil,  under  the  stimulus  of 
a  tropical  sun  and  frequent  rains,  has  immense  powers 
of  production.  These  lowlands,  gently  undulating 
and  ri-sing  only  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  feet 
above  sea  level,  form  a  practically  continuous  belt 
around  the  island,  in  which  are  to  be  found  the  great 
sugar  plantations.  Above  these  and  on  the  lower 
slopes  of  the  central  range  lie  the  grazing  and  farm 
lands,  whose  products  include  the  famous  Cuban  to- 
bacco. The  highlands  are,  as  a  rule,  covered  with 
dense  forest. 

Of  the  fertile  lowland  districts  the  most  celebrated 
are  those  of  Jagua  (Cienfuegos),  Trinidad,  Mariel,  and 
Matanzas.  The  provinces  of  Matanzas  and  Santa 
Clara  contain  at  once  the  best  and  the  worst  lands  of 
Cuba,  well  watered  and  highly  fertile  soil  occurring 
side  by  side  with  districts  noted  for  sterility.  Regions 
of  marsh  land  extend  along  much  of  the  coast,  and  the 
flat  southern  coast  lands  are  subject  to  overflow. 

As  regards  the  watercourses  of  the  island,  the 
rivers,  flowing  from  mountain  to  coast,  are  necessarily 
short.  They  are,  however,  very  numerous,  and  in  the 
rainy  season  swell  into  deep  and  wide  floods.  The 
Cauto,  the  largest  stream,  drains  the  long  valley  be- 


22  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

tween  the  Sierra  Maestra  and  the  main  mountain 
ridt^e,  and  is  navig:ablc  for  small  vessels  for  sixty  miles 
inland.  Its  navigation,  however,  has  not  always 
proved  safe.  The  bar  at  its  mouth  was  shifted  by  a 
heavy  flood  in  1616  so  as  to  imprison  all  the  vessels  in 
the  stream,  one  of  them  a  Spanish  man-of-war.  They 
were  held  beyond  escape  and  had  to  be  abandoned. 

On  the  north  side  the  largest  stream  is  Sagua  la 
Grande,  ninety  miles  long  and  navigable  for  about 
twenty  miles.  Among  the  streams  navigable  for 
shorter  distances  are  the  Sagua  la  Chica,  the  Jati- 
bonico  of  the  South,  the  Sasa,  the  Agabama,  and  the 
San  Juan,  the  last  of  which  flows  into  the  bay  of  Cien- 
fuegos.  The  island  possesses  few  lakes,  most  of  which 
lie  near  the  coast  marshes.  There  are  some,  however, 
in  the  mountain  region,  of  which  much  the  most  inter- 
esting is  Ariguanabo,  about  twenty  miles  southwest  of 
Havana.  Walled  around  with  rock  ridges,  this  attrac- 
tive body  of  water  is  about  six  square  miles  in  area 
and  thirty  feet  deep,  and  is  rich  in  finny  wealth. 

What  is  said  above  does  not  tell  the  full  story  of  the 
rivers,  nor  its  most  interesting  feature.  The  limestone 
which  forms  the  mountain  masses  of  Cuba  and  ex- 
tends in  a  thick  layer  down  their  slopes  to  the  marsh 
region  or  the  sea  is  permeable  to  water,  and  has  been 
dissolved  away  so  as  to  form  great  caverns  and  long 
underground  tunnels,  into  which  many  of  the  streams 
plunge  and  disappear.  Some  rise  to  the  surface  again, 
others  flow  under  the  sea,  through  which  their  waters 
are  often  forced  upward  in  glistening  springs.  Elisee 
Reclus  remarks  that  "  in  the  Jardines,  so  named  from 
the  verdure-clad  islets  strewm  like  gardens  amid  the 
blue  w^aters,  springs  of  fresh  water  bubble  up  from  the 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  23 

deep,  flowing  probably  in  subterranean  galleries  from 
the  main-land." 

Of  these  disappearing  streams  one  of  the  most  re- 
markable is  the  Rio  San  Antonio,  which  drains  the 
lake  of  Ariguanabo,  and  which,  after  passing  through 
the  town  of  San  Antonio  de  los  Bafios,  sinks  into  the 
earth  at  the  foot  of  a  spreading  ceiba  tree,  and  fails  to 
reappear.  Various  similar  streams  might  be  named, 
among  them  the  Jatibonico  of  the  North,  which,  after 
vanishing,  rises  again  in  a  series  of  tumbling  cascades. 
The  short  stream  called  the  Moa  forms  a  superb  cas- 
cade 300  feet  in  height,  and  disappears  in  a  cavern  to 
reach  the  surface  again  at  a  lower  level. 

The  Falls  of  the  Rosario,  in  the  province  of  Pinar 
del  Rio,  are  notable  for  their  beauty.  In  the  same 
province  the  excavating  waters  have  given  rise  to  an 
imposing  natural  bridge.  Elsewhere  these  waters 
have  left  evidences  of  their  former  labors  in  large 
caverns,  of  which  Cuba  has  a  remarkable  number, 
many  of  them  with  magnificent  stalactites.  These  In- 
clude the  cave  of  Cotilla,  near  Havana,  the  celebrated 
caves  of  Bellamar,  near  Matanzas,  of  San  Jose  de  los 
Remedios,  of  Monte  Libano,  north  of  Guantanamo, 
and  many  others  of  less  celebrity. 

THE  COASTAL  SYSTEM. 

Around  great  part  of  the  circumference  of  Cuba  ex- 
tends a  series  of  thickly  grouped  islets  and  reefs,  esti- 
mated at  1300  in  all,  which  stand  decidedly  in  the  way 
of  easy  navigation,  and  cut  off  about  half  the  coast 
from  free  access.  These  are  of  coral  origin,  being  due 
to  the  same  class  of  minute  creatures  that  has  covered 
the  mountains  and  plains  of  Cuba  with  a  thick  layer 


24  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

of  limestone.  They  constitute  four  distinct  groups, 
two  on  the  north  and  two  on  the  south.  From  Cape 
San  Antonio  to  Bahia  Honda  extends  the  Guani- 
guanico  archipelago,  which  includes  the  dangerous 
Red  Banks.  Farther  east,  stretching  from  Cardenas 
to  Nuevitas,  lies  the  Sabana  Camaguey,  composed  of  a 
multitude  of  keys  and  reefs,  whose  eastern  section  was 
named  by  Columbus  Jardin  del  Key  (King's  Garden). 
This  title  of  Jardin  has  been  given  to  both  the  south- 
ern groups.  Extending  from  Cape  Cruz  to  Trinidad 
lie  the  Jardines  de  la  Reina  (Queen's  Gardens),  and 
from  Cienfuegos  nearly  to  the  western  end  of  the 
island  extends  the  archipelago  of  the  Canarreos,  which 
includes  the  large  Isla  de  Pinos  and  the  Jardines  and 
Jardinellos  (Little  Islands),  that  group  of  green  islets 
in  whose  midst  the  sunken  waters  from  the  far-ofif 
highlands  rise  in  fresh  springs,  which  bubble  up 
through  the  salt  waves. 

Amid  this  host  of  islands  there  is  only  one  of  im- 
portance for  its  size,  the  Isla  de  Pinos  (Isle  of  Pines), 
to  which  Columbus  gave  the  name  of  Evangelist 
Island.  This  measures  about  sixty  miles  in  its  greatest 
length  from  east  to  west,  and  fifty-five  miles  in  maxi- 
mum breadth.  It  lies  about  sixty  miles  from  Bata- 
bano,  the  nearest  port  on  the  main-land  of  Cuba.  In 
the  north  its  surface  is  mountainous,  rising  to  a  >con- 
siderable  height  and  thickly  wooded,  while  the  soil  is 
of  high  fertility.  In  the  south  it  is  low  and  barren. 
Between  the  two  sections  extends  a  swamp,  across 
which  sweep  the  tides,  dividing  the  island  practically 
into  two.  These  sections  are  connected  by  a  stone 
causeway  built  on  some  rock  ledges  at  the  water  level. 

While  the  portions  of  the  Cuban  coast  free  from 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  25 

island  screens  present  bold,  high  outlines,  broken  by 
the  narrow  entrances  to  many  capacious  harbors,  the 
sections  sheltered  by  the  archipelagoes  are  usually  low 
and  marshy,  and  thickly  covered  by  mangrove  and 
other  water  plants  of  the  tropics.  The  Zapata,  a  great 
shoe-shaped  marsh  on  the  southern  coast,  is  more 
thait  sixty  miles  long,  its  flat  surface  being  at  sea  level 
and  most  of  its  extent  consisting  of  impassable  quag- 
mires, though  here  and  there  the  surface  is  firm 
enough  to  support  a  grove  of  trees.  Winding  through 
its  mangrove  thickets  may  be  seen  the  channels  of 
former  rivers,  and  in  its  depths  lie  numerous  lakes, 
some  open  to  the  sun,  while  the  surface  of  others  is 
covered  with  the  leaves  and  flowers  of  innumerable 
tropical  lilies.  Breakwaters  of  sand,  thrown  up  by  the 
waves,  here  and  there  enclose  the  stagnant  marsh 
waters,  and  off  the  coast  the  coral  animals  are  busy 
building  a  wall  which  will  in  time  shut  in  this  broad 
expanse  from  the  sea. 

THE  FOREST  REGION. 

Much  the  greater  part  of  the  island  of  Cuba  is 
covered  with  forest  of  the  most  tropical  luxuriance  of 
growth.  Innumerable  vines  bind  tree  to  tree  with 
their  tough  cordage,  and  passage  can  be  made  only 
by  constant  use  of  the  ever-present  machete,  that  in- 
valuable implement  of  the  rural  Cuban.  Outside  the 
range  of  virgin  forest  are  extensive  regions  covered 
with  stunted  trees  and  lofty  grasses,  whose  shelter  was 
abundantly  made  use  of  during  the  insurrection  for 
concealment  and  ambush. 

Of  the  area  of  Cuba  nearly  20,000,000  acres,  about 
two-thirds  of  the  whole,  remain  in  a  state  of  unoccu- 


26  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

jiied  wildncss,  nearly  13,000,000  acres  of  this  extensive 
territory  being  covered  with  primeval  forest.  These 
broad  woodlands  contain  numbers  of  trees  of  high 
economic  value,  of  which  we  shall  speak  later.  The 
dominating  plant  is  the  royal  palm,  found  not  only 
throughout  the  forests,  but  in  all  parts  of  the  island, 
to  whose  landscapes  its  columnar  trunk  and  gracefully 
spreading  leafy  top  give  an  ever-present  charm.  Na- 
ture showers  beauty  on  a  Cuban  landscape,  and  over 
all  its  lower  forms  towers  the  royal  palm,  usually  from 
jfifty  to  seventy  feet  in  height,  but  occasionally  gaining 
an  altitude  of  more  than  100  feet.  Planted  alternately 
with  the  mango  and  other  tropical  trees,  these  palms 
compose  on  the  caf dales,  or  cofifee  estates,  avenues 
miles  in  length,  forming  aisles  of  surpassing  beauty, 
in  which,  "  overtopping  the  other  trees,  their  sweep- 
ing noble  arches  do  not  exclude  the  sunlight,  which 
pours  through  the  intervals  as  through  the  windows 
of  a  cathedral  and  illuminates  the  green  solemnity  of 
the  majestic  colonnades." 

GEOLOGY. 

There  is  excellent  reason  for  the  belief  that  Cuba 
was  at  one  time  connected  with  the  neighboring  main- 
land, since  fossil  animals  of  a  recent  geological  period, 
such  as  the  megalonyx,  mastodon,  etc.,  are  found  both 
here  and  in  the  United  States.  It  is  beUeved  that  these 
animals  made  their  way  into  Cuba  by  the  route  of 
Florida,  to  which  the  island  was  then  connected.  Fer- 
nandez de  Castro,  a  geologist  of  experience,  concludes 
that  all  the  great  geological  divisions  are  represented 
in  Cuba,  though  the  best  marked  strata  are  those  of 
the  tertiary  period,  all  of  whose  formations  are  abun- 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  27 

dantly  represented  by  fossil  species.  Still  later  are 
the  post-pliocene  beds,  containing  the  fossils  above 
mentioned  as  similar  to  those  found  in  the  United 
States,  and  argillaceous  and  calcareous  deposits  whose 
fossils  represent  species  still  living.  To  the  same  late 
period  belong  the  very  abundant  conglomerates  of 
lime,  iron,  and  metamorphic  rocks,  and  the  shell  de- 
posits which  exist  in  considerable  abundance  in  cer- 
tain localities. 

Most  valuable  of  the  deposits  is  the  external  layer 
of  vegetable  mould  known  as  Ticrra  Colorado  (red 
earth),  which  contains  much  iron  and  forms  an  ad- 
mirable soil  for  the  culture  of  tobacco  and  sugar-cane. 
In  Pinar  del  Rio  and  some  other  localities  are  sili- 
cious  alluvial  deposits,  of  the  greatest  value  in  the  to- 
bacco culture.  The  limestone  deposit,  of  which  we 
have  spoken  as  composing  mountain  masses  and 
forming  a  layer  over  the  plains,  is  being  added  to 
steadily  along  the  coast,  whose  numerous  islets  and 
keys  are  fhe  work  of  myriads  of  coral  animals.  These 
creatures  are  still  actively  at  work  building  new  reefs 
and  joining  adjacent  islets  by  bridges  of  coral  rock. 

Through  this  wide-spread  layer  of  limestone  the 
older  formations  frequently  protrude, — granites,  sie- 
nites,  diorites,  serpentines,  and  other  ancient  rocks 
being  so  abundant  as  to  create  the  impression  that 
they  form  the  basis  upon  which  all  the  later  forma- 
tions of  the  island  are  laid.  Of  these  the  serpentine  is 
the  most  abundant,  covering  large  areas,  and  attain- 
ing in  some  localities  a  thickness  of  600  feet.  In  it  are 
rich  mines  of  copper,  and  in  some  places  petroleum 
runs  out  of  its  clefts.  In  eastern  Cuba  abundant 
springs  of  this  valuable  mineral  oil  are  found. 


28  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  the  low  coast  lands  of  Cuba  is  that 
of  the  torrid  zone,  whose  northern  boundary  runs  just 
north  of  the  island.  In  the  higher  interior  the  torrid 
heats  decline,  and  the  climate  is  more  in  accordance 
with  that  of  the  temperate  zones.  As  is  general  in 
countries  on  the  borders  of  the  tropics,  the  year  is 
divided  into  a  wet  and  a  dry  season,  so  called,  though 
rain  falls  in  every  month  of  the  year.  The  insular  situ- 
ation causes  nuich  precipitation,  and  at  all  seasons  the 
humidity  of  the  atmosphere  averages  over  eighty 
degrees. 

The  specifically  hot  and  wet  season  extends  through 
half  the  year,  from  the  beginning  of  May  to  the  end 
of  October,  during  which  thunder-storms  are  of  al- 
most daily  occurrence,  and  the  downpour  of  rain  is 
at  times  of  great  violence.  Throughout  this  period 
the  temperature  is  high  and  varies. little  day  or  night, 
the  mean  temperature  of  Havana  in  August  being 
about  82°  F.  In  some  districts  it  reaches  90°.  The 
only  alleviation  is  the  refreshing  sea  breeze,  which  rises 
daily  in  the  afternoon,  and  redeems,  in  a  measure,  the 
great  warmth  and  humidity  of  the  atmosphere. 

During  the  remaining  six  months  of  the  year,  called 
the  dry  season  by  contrast,  the  rains  are  moderate  and 
the  temperature  considerably  reduced,  Havana  having 
a  mean,  during  this  period,  of  about  70°  F.  In  the 
interior,  at  elevations  of  300  feet  or  more,  the  tem- 
perature is  considerably  lower,  and  occasionally  falls 
to  the  freezing  point,  while  in  the  highlands  frost  is 
not  uncommon.  Yet  the  average  temperature  varies 
only  about  eleven  degrees  between  the  hottest  and  the 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  29 

coldest  months.  The  mean  annual  rainfall  is  nearly 
fifty-two  inches,  of  which  the  eastern  section  of  the 
island  receives  somewhat  the  greater  portion. 

The  prevailing  winds  are  the  easterly  trades,  though 
cool  north  winds  visit  the  western  section  in  the  dry 
season,  lasting  for  forty-eight  hours  or  less  and  caus- 
ing a  marked  decrease  of  temperature.  Hurricanes 
are  occasionally  disastrous,  but  are  less  frequent  in 
Cuba  than  in  the  islands  farther  south,  five  or  six 
years  sometimes  passing  without  such  a  storm.  That 
of  1846  caused  great  destruction  in  Havana,  and  in 
1894  the  fruit  industry  in  the  northeast  section  was 
almost  exterminated. 

Cuba  has  no  .diseases  peculiar  to  itself,  but  shares 
with  the  American  tropics  generally  their  scourge  of 
yellow  fever;  which  makes  its  appearance  annually 
during  the  wet  season  in  the  seaports  and  coast  re- 
gions, where  it  rages  with  virulence,  causing  great 
loss  of  life.  It  is,  however,  unknown  in  the  interior; 
and  there  is  excellent  reason  to  believe  that  its  prev- 
alence in  the  coast  cities  is  the  fault  of  the  people 
themselves, — a. natural  result  of  their  lack  of  sanitary 
care.  With  cities  properly  cleaned  and  with  due  at- 
tention to  the  laws  of  health  this  dread'  disease  might 
quite  disappear. 

Malarial  fevers  and  dysentery  are  very  common  in 
many  parts  of  the  island,  and  great  care  is  needed  by 
visitors  to  Ctiba  to  avoid  getting  the  clothes  or  the 
body  wet,  or  sleeping  out  of  doors  without  protection 
from  the  night  dews.  Of  course,  care  is  requisite  in 
drinking  only  pure  water,  against  over-indulgence  in 
some  of  the  island  fruits,  and  in  personal  cleanliness. 
Leprosy  is  probably  more  common  in  Cuba  than  in 


30  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  Hawaiian  Islands,  but  the  leading:  physicians  say 
that  there  is  no  dangler  of  a  clean  white  man  being 
affected.  In  the  Cuban  hospitals,  however,  the  idea 
of  separation  of  patients  afifccted  with  contagious  dis- 
eases from  others  does  not  seem  to  exist,  a  state  of 
affairs  which  must  lend  much  aid  to  the  propagation 
of  disease. 

The  dangerous  result  of  unacclimated  people  from 
the  north  visiting  Cuba  in  the  wet  season  was  strik- 
ingly shown  in  the  war  of  1898,  the  deaths  in  the 
American  army  from  malarial  and  yellow  fever  and 
other  diseases  far  exceeding  those  from  battle.  This 
was,  no  doubt,  in  considerable  measure  due  to  un- 
sanitary conditions.  In  Santiago  and  its  vicinity  the 
very  idea  of  sanitation  had  not  been  born.  Since  then 
this  city,  under  American  control,  has,  for  the  first 
time  in  its  existence,  been  thoroughly  cleaned.  The 
effect  of  this  new  state  of  affairs  upon  its  health  condi- 
tions remains  to  be  learned,  but  can  scarcely  fail  to  be 
highly  advantageous. 

In  conclusion,  it  may  be  said  for  the  climate  of 
Cuba  that  on  an  average  rain  falls  on  not  more  than 
ten  days  in  the  month,  and  rarely  on  more  than  twenty 
days  in  the  rainiest  month,  while  an  all-day  rain  oc- 
curs on  only  seventeen  days  in  the  year.  The  rains 
are  generally  in  the  afternoon,  the  morning^s  being 
usually  sunny. 

The  abundant  rains  in  the  warm  season,  the  occur- 
rence of  sunshine  on  almost  every  day,  and  the  pleni- 
tude .of  refreshing  breezes  give  Cuba  a  remarkable  ex- 
uberance of  vegetation  and  a  climate  unsurpassed  in 
the  tropics.  The  great  transparency  of  the  atmos- 
phere adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  landscapes,  and 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  31 

yields  a  peculiar  brilliance  to  the  starlight  and  a  soft, 
mellow  glow  to  the  sunsets,  whose  only  fault  is  their 
tropical  brevity.  The  surrounding  seas  are  of  un- 
usual beauty,  with  their  deep  green  color  variegated 
with  shifting  opaline  lustres,  presenting  gleams  of 
such  rich  and  varied  hues  as  are  never  seen  in  the 
waters  of  the  north. 


III.  NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS. 

FOREST  TREES. 

The  vast  forests  of  Cuba,  so  dense  as  to  be  almost 
impenetrable,  many  of  their  deep  recesses  having 
never  been  traversed,  contain  numerous  species  of 
valuable  trees,  frequently  luxuriant  in  growth  and 
magnificent- in  dimensions.  Hard-wood  trees,  of  high 
value  for  cabinet  work  and  other  purposes,  are  very 
abundant,  including  the  mahogany,  ebony,  cedar,  log- 
wood, iron-wood,  lignum-vitae  and  various  other  spe- 
cies. It  is  said  that  there  are  in  all  more  than  forty 
varieties  of  fine  cabinet  woods.  The  palm,  with  more 
than  thirty  species,  is  everywhere  present.  The  ubi- 
quitous and  useful  cocoa-nut  palm  extends  its  realm 
from  mountain  to  coast-lands,  and  the  stately  royal" 
palm  (Palma  real)  is  found  in  all  localities,  especially 
in  the  west.  This  queen  of  the  south  is  associated  in 
the  Isle  of  Pines  with  a  tree  characteristic  of  the  north, 
the  pine,  so  common  there  as  to  give  its  name  to  the 
island,  in  which  it  shares  the  surface  with  the  ma- 
hogany and  the  palm.  Something  peculiar  in  the  soil 
causes  this  tree  to  flourish  here,  so  far  from  its  native 
regions.  It  also  occurs  in  Pinar  del  Rio,  whose  name 
likewise  is  derived  from  it. 

All  the  majestic  trees  of  the  Mexican  lowlands,  so 

famous  for  the  beauty  of  their  foliage  and  the  splendor 

of  their  flowers,  give  grace  and  charm  to  the  Cuban 

coasts;   while  in  the  forests,  in  addition  to  the  useful 

32 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  33 

trees  named,  are  various  dye-woods,  an  abundance  of 
ferns,  and  vines  in  great  variety,  some  of  these  of  such 
strength  as  to  strangle  the  trees  which  they  clasp  in 
their  insinuating  embrace.  It  is  the  intricacy  of  these 
clinging  vines,  or  lianas,  that  renders  the  forests  im- 
possible to  traverse  without  the  constant  aid  of  the 
machete.  "  Only  those  who  have  seen  a  tropical 
forest  can  form  an  idea  of  these  dark  woods,  with  their 
giant  trees,  thorny  bushes,  cactus  plants,  and  trailing 
lianas,  gracefully  pendant,  swinging  from  branch  to 
branch,  and  wound  around  trunk  and  limb  of  trees 
in  most  wonderful  tracery,  beautiful  to  the  view,  but 
almost  impossible  to  pass  through."  Troublesome  as 
they  are,  the  splendor  of  their  foliage  and  flowers  gives 
rich  warrant  for  their  existence  to  the  lover  of  beauty. 

Among  the  most  stately  and  striking  of  the  trees 
of  Cuba  is  the  ceiba,  or  silk-cotton  tree, — the  latter 
name  being  derived  from  its  large  seed-pod,  which  is 
packed  with  cotton-like  fibre  of  a  soft,  silky  texture. 
This  imposing  tree  often  attains  a  height  of  a  hundred 
feet,  its  massive  trunk,  with  its  buttress  of  exposed 
roots,  reaching  upward  for  fifty  feet  without  a  branch, 
while  its  dense  canopy  of  foliage  afifords  complete 
protection  from  the  sun.  A  smaller  tree,  but  one  of 
marked  attraction,  is  the  tamarind,  with  its  delicate, 
deep-green  foliage  and  the  chocolate-colored  pods 
which  hang  in  thick  loops  from  every  branch. 

Eminent  among  the  trees  of  Cuba,  alike  for  beauty 
and  utility,  are  the  palms,  which  give  a  tropical  tone 
to  every  landscape.  And  chief  among  the  numerous 
species  of  these  is  the  royal  palm,  a  tree  native  to  the 
island,  and  everywhere  present  with  its  trunk  like  a 
Corinthian  column  and  its  plume-like  crown  of  ver- 

3 


34  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

dant  foliage.  Here  it  stands  in  solitary  dignity,  there 
clusters  in  shady  groves  ;  now  grouped  in  the  valley, 
now  rising  above  the  trees  of  the  forest,  now  lifting  its 
plumed  crest  upon  a  wooded  mountain  summit,  now 
rising  in  long  avenues  like  the  stately  pillars  of  some 
grand  temple.  It  is  as  useful  as  beautiful,  there  being 
no  part  of  it  that  is  not  adapted  to  human  purposes. 
The  wood  yields  boards  excellent  for  building  pur- 
poses, the  hard  outer  shell  of  the  trunk  being  readily 
split  into  strips.  The  roots  are  claimed  to  possess 
medicinal  properties.  The  leaves  are  used  for  thatch, 
and  their  long,  semicircular  stem,  which  embraces  the 
trunk  of  the  tree,  has  a  variety  of  uses.  It  becomes 
pliable  when  soaked  in  water,  and  may  be  shaped  into 
a  water-bucket,  a  wash-basin,  or  other  receptacle. 
The  bud  of  the  central  spire,  from  which  the  leaves 
e'xpand,  consists  of  a  tender  substance  which  is  very 
palatable  as  a  food,  either  raw,  cooked  as  a  vegetable, 
or  made  into  a  preserve  with  sugar. 

FOOD  PLANTS  AND  FRUITS. 

Food  plants  exist  in  the  greatest  abundance  and 
variety.  Much  the  most  important  of  alimentary 
plants  is  the  plantain,  with  the  choicest  variety  of 
whose  fruit  we  are  so  familiar  in  the  banana.  Next 
in  order  of  usefulness  comes  the  cassava  or  manioc, 
with  its  sweet  and  bitter  varieties.  Of  these  the  root 
is  used, — the  sweet  being  eaten  as  a  vegetable,  and  the 
bitter,  after  its  poisonous  juice  is  extracted,  being 
converted  into  bread.  The  sweet  root  is  as  mealy  as 
the  potato  when  boiled,  while  the  bitter  is  the  source 
of  the  well-known  starchy  food  known  as  tapioca. 

Other  farinaceous  roots  include  the  sweet  potato 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  35 

and  the  yam,  though  these  are  less  used  than  in  other 
West  India  islands.  Maize  or  Indian  corn  is  indigen- 
ous, and  is  grown  in  considerable  quantities, — the 
green  leaves  being  employed  as  fodder  and  the  grain 
as  food  for  man  and  beast.  The  cacao-bean  plant  is 
also  grown  and  rice  is  extensively  cultivated.  Very 
little  attention,  however,  is  paid  to  horticulture,  and 
the  ordinary  garden  vegetables  are  little  used  except 
in  the  dry  season  for  the  supply  of  Havana  and  the 
other  large  cities.  There  is  cultivated,  however,  a 
variety  of  beans,  the  favorite  being  known  as  the  gar- 
ban  so. 

Cuba  is  rich  in  fruits,  possessing  almost  all  those  of 
tropical  and  subtropical  lands.  The  most  esteemed 
among  these  are  the  pine-apple  and  the  orange,  the 
latter  in  several  favorite  varieties.  To  the  orange  may 
be  added  the  lime  and  the  lemon,  bearing  blossoms, 
green  and  ripe  fruit  at  the  same  time,  and  filling  the 
air  with  their  fragrance.  The  banana  grows  every- 
where and  bears  with  prodigal  profuseness,  its  great 
bunches  of  green  fruit  ripening  as  well  off  the  tree  as 
on  it.  Other  well-known  fruits  are  the  fig,  the  pome- 
granate, the  tamarind,  and  the  guava, — the  last  being 
converted  into  a  highly  esteemed  jelly  or  preserve, 
eaten  everywhere  in  Cuba  and  famous  all  over  the 
world.  The  tamarind  is  universal  on  the  island;  a  tall 
and  handsome  tree^  the  acid  pulp  of  its  bean-like  fruit, 
when  steeped  in  water,  yielding  a  cooling  and  deli- 
cious beverage,  much  used  in  the  tropics.  Another 
fruit  tree,  equally  wide-spread,  is  the  cocoa-nut  palm, 
which  grows  to  the  height  of  fifty  feet  or  more;  its 
long  drooping  leaves  revealing  beneath  their  bases  the 
great  bunches  of  nuts  weighing  as  much  as  three 


36  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

liuiuired  pounds.  When  nearly  ripe,  the  nut  yields  a 
pleasant,  cooling,  and  healthful  beverage,  much  used 
in  Cuba. 

There  are  many  other  delicious  fruits,  too  perish- 
able to  be  transported  from  the  island.  These  include 
the  mango,  zapota,  rose-apple,  mammee,  sapotilla, 
custard-apple,  and  others.  The  mango,  an  exotic,  yet 
nearly  as  abundant  as  the  banana,  grows  upon  a  hand- 
some tree,  with  shining,  dark-green  foliage;  its  yellow 
fruit,  about  three  times  the  size  of  an  egg-plum,  grow- 
ing in  long  pendant  bunches.  It  is  very  juicy  when 
ripe,  and  is  an  especial  favorite  with  the  negroes. 
Growing  wild  in  the  forest  about  Santiago,  it  formed 
a  somewhat  perilous  addition  to  the  diet  of  our  troops 
during  the  recent  campaign.  The  sapotilla  is  a  tree 
of  attractive  aspect,  its  leaves  being  glossy  and 
feathery,  its  blossoms  white  and  bell-shaped,  with  a 
perfume  like  that  of  the  apple-blossom.  It  bears  a 
round  fruit  of  about  the  size  of  a  peach,  with  a  rough, 
dark  skin.  It  is  delicious  when  fully  ripe,  the  pulp 
melting  in  the  mouth  like  a  custard.  The  custard- 
apple  has  a  tough  skin  and  a  subacid  flavor,  its  pulp 
being  full  of  little  black  seeds.  It  weighs  a  pound  or 
more,  is  soft  and  juicy,  and  is  much  used  for  flavoring 
purposes.  The  star-apple  is  so  named  from  the  star- 
like figure  shown  by  its  centre  when  cut  through.  It 
has  a  green  interior  even  when  ripe,  but  is  exquisite 
in  flavor,  being  eaten  with  a  spoon  out  of  the  outer 
rind.  The  rose-apple  grows  on  a  handsome,  sym- 
metrical tree,  with  oval  glossy  leaves,  and  large,  white, 
fragrant  blossoms.  The  fruit  is  of  the  size  and  shape 
of  a  large  peach,  smooth  of  skin,  and  cream-colored 
throughout.     Its  pulp  is  firm  and  has  so  strong  a 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  37 

flavor  of  attar-of-rose  as  to  render  it  somewhat  un- 
palatable. It  is  much  used  to  flavor  soups  and  pud- 
dings. The  mammee  is  a  large  fruit  growing  on  high, 
umbrageous  trees,  solid  in  texture,  and  with  a  flavor 
approaching  that  of  the  peach,  though  less  delicate. 
When  ripe,  it  is  light  yellow  in  color. 

While  many  of  these  fruits  grow  on  more  or  less 
lofty  trees,  the  pine-apple,  one  of  the  best  of  them  all, 
is  the  humblest  in  its  manner  of  growth, — a  field  of 
pine-apples  being  little  more  attractive  than  a  field  of 
cabbages.  It  grows  single  upon  a  low  stem,  reaching 
some  twenty  inches  in  height.  The  plant  bears  but 
one  apple  at  a  time,  but  will  yield  an  annual  crop  for 
three  or  four  years.  Cuba  possesses,  according  to  a 
recent  botanical  catalogue,  a  total  of  3350  indigenous 
species  of  flowering  plants,  in  addition  to  the  many 
that  have  been  introduced. 

The  chief  cultivated  plants  of  the  island  are  three 
in  number, — sugar-cane,  tobacco,  and  cofTee.  Of 
these  tobacco  is  a. native,  the  others  have  been  intro- 
duced. The  cultivation  of  only  one  of  these  plants  is 
to-day  in  a  promising  condition.  Coffee,  introduced 
in  the  eighteenth  century,  and  cultivated  largely  after 
the  revolution  in  Hayti,  has  greatly  fallen  off,  and  now 
makes  a  very  small  figure  in  the  exports.  The  de- 
mand for  sugar  has  also  largely  declined,  in  conse- 
quence  of  the  competition  of  beet-root  sugar;  while 
the  destructive  activity  of  the  insurgents  has,  for  the 
time  being,  ruined  the  plantations.  Tobacco  is  at 
present  the  only  flourishing  product,  its  superior 
quality  making  a  steady  demand  for  it  in  all  parts  of 
the  world.  Under  new  conditions,  however,  the  profit- 
able culture  of  sugar  is  likely  to  be  restored. 


38  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Cotton  was  at  one  time  a  product  of  importance, 
and  new  attention  was  paid  to  it  during  the  American 
civil  war.  but  its  culture  met  with  no  great  success, 
and  it  is  now  but  little  grown. 

ANLHALS. 

Cuba  possesses  only  two  indigenous  quadrupeds, 
one  a  rodent  of  about  the  size  of  a  rabbit,  being  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  inches  in  length;  it  resembles 
a  rat  in  general  appearance.  This  is  known  as  the 
agouti  (Jutia  or  Jiufia),  is  black  in  color  and  makes  its 
home  in  hollow  or  cleft  trees,  on  whose  leaves  and 
fruits  it  feeds.  Its  flesh  formed  part  of  the  diet  of  the 
Cubans  during  their  insurrection,  though  it  is  insipid 
in  taste.  The  other  native  mammal  is  one  of  the  in- 
sectivorous class,  the  solenodon,  the  other  representa- 
tives of  whose  family  are  confined  to  Madagascar. 
The  swamps  contain  a  few  deer,  but  these  are  thought 
to  be  the  descendants  of  animals  introduced  from  the 
continent.  The  flying  squirrel,  the  dormouse,  and 
various  other  quadrupeds  add  animation  to  the  land- 
scape. 

There  is  no  lack  of  reptiles.  Lizards  are  abundant, 
of  various  species,  the  large  iguana  being  common. 
The  dangerous  crocodile  and  cayman  occur,  and  tur- 
tles are  numerous  along  the  coasts,  frequenting  the 
reefs  and  shallows  and  the  sandy  beaches.  Serpents 
are  not  numerous.  One  of  these,  the  maja,  is  of  large 
size,  attaining  a  length  of  twelve  to  fourteen  feet  and 
a  circumference  of  eighteen  or  twenty  inches.  It  is 
harmless  to  man,  and  is  said  to  lodge  in  the  roofs  of 
country  houses  and  prey  on  the  poultry.  The  jtiba. 
a  species  about  six  feet  in  length,  is  more  vicious  in 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  39 

disposition,  but  there  are  no  venomous  snakes.  The 
manatee,  known  famiharly  as  the  sea-cow  or  cow- 
whale,  is  found  in  the  waters  of  Cuba,  as  in  the  tropical 
waters  of  the  Atlantic  in  general.  Land  crabs  are  so 
common  as  to  be  something  of  a  nuisance,  appearing 
frequently  in  large  numbers,  and  crossing  the  island 
in  troops  from  north  to  south  every  spring  at  the 
opening  of  the  rainy  season.  Bats,  some  of  them 
huge  in  size,  form  an  occasionally  unpleasant  element 
of  the  fauna.  , 

Cuba  is  abundantly  provided  with  birds,  there  being 
more  than  200  species  indigenous  to  the  island,  many 
of  them  of  great  beauty  of  plumage.  They  include 
only  a  few  birds  of  prey,  important  among  which  are 
the  vulture  and  the  turkey-buzzard.  These  are  the 
licensed  scavengers  of  the  island,  and  are  protected  in 
their  useful  labors  by  the  law,  paying  for  their  im- 
munity by  their  services  in  the  removal  of  putrefying 
flesh.  But  for  them,  the  death-rate  of  Cuba  might  be 
much  higher  than  it  is,  the  people  being  ignorant  or 
heedless  of  the  first  laws  of  health. 

Of  the  more  familiar  birds  may  be  named  the  blue- 
bird, cat-bird,  and  robin,  while  wild  pigeons  are  pres- 
ent in  great  variety,  blue,  gray,  and  white  of  hue.  By 
the  waters  of  the  lagoons  patiently  watches  the  red 
flamingo;  the  gaudy  paroquet  makes  his  harsh  voice 
heard  in  the  forests;  here  is  the  brightly  variegated 
English  lady-bird,  the  golden-winged  woodpecker, 
the  indigo-bird,  and  many  others,  most  brilliant 
among  them  the  tiny  humming-birds,  of  which  some 
sixty  species  are  found,  of  every  variety  of  metallic 
hue. 

The  small  streams  of  the  island,  as  well  as  the  bays 


40  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

and  inlets,  are  well  supplied  with  fish,  but  food-fish 
are  not  abundant  off  the  Greater  Antilles,  though 
they  thrive  in  the  Bahamas.  Shell-fish  are  numerous, 
the  oysters,  which  cling  to  the  branches  of  the  man- 
grove trees,  being  abundant  but  small,  and  lacking  the 
delicious  flavor  of  those  of  northern  seas.  Insect  life 
occurs  in  the  ordinary  tropical  exuberance,  and  em- 
braces a  number  of  those  pests  that  go  to  render  life 
an  annoyance.  These  noxious  forms  include  the 
everywhere-present  mosquito,  the  sand  fly.  the  chigoe 
or  jigger,  a  biting  ant  called  the  vivajagua,  spiders 
whose  bite  produces  fever,  and  scorpions.  The  last 
are  less  malignant  than  those  of  Europe.  Chief  among 
the  useful  insects  is  the  bee,  whose  wax  and  honey  are 
products  of  considerable  commercial  value.  Fireflies 
are  numerous  and  of  various  species.  Of  the  large 
citcujo,  a  dozen  placed  in  a  wacker  cage  are  said  to 
afford  light  enough  to  read  by;  while  a  calabash 
pierced  with  holes  and  containing  from  fifteen  to 
twenty  of  these  insects  often  serves  the  poorer  people 
as  a  sort  of  lantern.  They  are  easily  kept  by  feeding 
them  on  the  soft  pulp  of  the  sugar-cane,  being  very 
fond  of  sweets.  The  belles  of  Cuba  do  not  fail  to  em- 
ploy these  brilliantly  luminous  insects  as  ornaments, 
wearing  them  in  their  hair,  in  necklaces,  or  attached 
to  their  dress,  which  can  be  readily  done  without  in- 
jury to  the  insect.  Butterflies,  many  of  them  of  great 
beauty,  are  very  numerous,  there  being  not  less  than 
300  distinct  species. 

Among  the  wild  animals  are  two  escaped  from 
domestic  service,  the  dog  and  cat,  which  in  their  feral 
state  form  staple  annoyances  of  the  island.  The  wild 
dog,  known  as  the  perro  jibaro,  has  regained  its  native 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  41 

fierceness  and  carnivorous  habits,  though  it  is  less 
dangerous  than  the  wolf,  since  it  never  attacks  man 
unless  pressed  in  the  chase.  These  dogs,  whatever 
their  original  color  may  have  been,  uniformly  become 
of  a  dirty  black  hue,  with  a  very  rough  coat.  They 
lurk  in  the  forests  and  do  much  damage  among  the 
cattle.  Earnest  efforts  have  been  made  to  extirpate 
them,  but  in  spite  of  this  they  increase  in  numbers. 
The  cat,  known  in  its  wild  state  as  the  gato  jibaro, 
pays  its  chief  attention  to  the  poultry  yard. 

Of  domestic  animals,  the  ox,  horse,  and  pig  are 
the  most  numerous,  cattle-raising  being  one  of  the 
leading  industries.  Horses  are  bred  largely  in  certain 
localities.  Sheep,  goats,  and  mules  are  less  numerous, 
though  of  late  years  the  great  Spanish  jackass  has 
been  introduced  with  some  success  for  the  purpose  of 
breeding  mules.  Of  domestic  birds  may  be  named 
the  common  fowl,  the  goose,  turkey,  peacock,  and 
pigeon.  Of  these  the  first  named  is  everywhere  raised, 
in  city  and  country  alike. 

METALS. 

It  was  the  hope  of  finding  rich  deposits  of  the 
precious  metals  that  first  attracted  the  Spaniards  to 
Cuba.  Gold  was  sent  to  Spain  by  the  early  settlers, 
with  no  statement  as  to  its  source;  but  it  is  now  be- 
lieved to  have  been  the  accumulated  wealth  of  the 
natives,  wrung  from  them  by  violence  and  torture, 
since  no  important  source  of  this  valued  metal  has 
since  been  discovered.  Gold-bearing  sands  are  found 
in  the  rivers  Holguin,  Escambray,  and  others,  and 
gold  has  been  obtained  from  the  workings  of  Aga- 
bama  and  Sagua  la  Grande  rivers;  but  the  cost  of  ob- 


42  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

taining  it  exceeds  its  value,  and  Cuba  gives  no  promise 
of  importance  in  its  yield  of  this  metal. 

Silver  has  been  found,  in  conjunction  with  copper, 
at  Villa  Clara;  specimens  of  the  ore,  worked  in  1827, 
yielding  more  than  seventy-five  ounces  to  the  ton  of 
ore.  Yet  despite  this  promising  show,  the  mining  of 
silver  here  has  not  been  a  success.  Silver,  associated 
with  mercury,  has  also  been  found  in  the  Isle  of  Pines. 
For  a  long  period  in  the  past  copper  continued  the 
most  important  of  Cuban  metals.  It  exists  in  several 
sections  of  the  island,  the  most  valuable  deposits  being 
in  Santiago  de  Cuba.  The  rich  veins  at  Cobre,  near 
the  city  of  Santiago,  were  opened  in  the  seventeenth 
century  and  continued  to  yield  vmtil  late  in  the 
eighteenth,  when  they  were  abandoned.  Their  lack 
of  profit  was  due  to  the  imperfect  methods  of  working 
the  ore,  for  the  heaps  of  refuse  material,  when  ex- 
amined by  English  mining  experts  at  a  later  date, 
proved  so  rich  in  metal  that  they  were  sent  to  England 
to  be  smelted,  and  the  old  workings  were  reopened. 
From  1828  to  1840,  copper  to  the  value  of  from 
$2,000,000  to  $3,000,000  was  shipped  annually  from 
this  district  to  the  United  States;  and  the  mines  con- 
tinued profitable  until  1868,  when  the  outbreak  of  the 
insurrection  put  an  end  to  operations.  The  shafts, 
from  900  to  1200  feet  deep  and  extending  below  sea- 
level,  subsequently  filled  with  water,  which  has  effec- 
tively stopped  operations.  Much  copper  remains,  as 
may  be  judged  from  the  fact  that  it  has  proved  profita- 
ble to  pump  the  mine  water  into  sluices  containing 
scrap  iron,  upon  which  the  copper  held  in  solution  is 
deposited. 

One  of  the  largest  veins  of  copper  in  the  world  is 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  43 

said  to  exist  in  this  district,  in  which  shafts  were  for- 
merly sunk  to  the  depth  of  over  iioo  feet.  It  is  be- 
Ueved  to  be  still  very  rich,  and,  despite  the  troubles 
from  water,  is  likely  again  to  be  opened  through  the 
aid  of  American  capital.  There  are  a  number  of  other 
mines,  nearly  all  of  which  have  been  worked  in  the 
past,  and  most  of  which  offer  good  prospects  to  future 
operators. 

Iron  exists  in  considerable  abundance  in  several 
sections  of  Cuba,  in  some  of  which  it  is  profitably 
mined.  One  of  the  richest  localities  is  said  to  be  the 
Cubitas  Mountain  region, — the  seat  of  government  of 
the  recent  insurrection, — in  which  iron  ores  of  several 
kinds  occur  in  enormous  quantities.  Also  along  the 
route  surveyed  for  the  designed  railway  from  Santa 
Clara  to  Santiago  almost  inexhaustible  beds  of 
chromic  iron  ore  exist.  It  is  said,  also,  that  cop- 
per, nickel,  and  cobalt  exist  in  large  deposits  in  the 
province  of  Puerto  Principe;  but  this  remains  to  be 
proved.  The  Cubitas  mines  would  probably  now  be 
worked  but  for  the  insurrection,  an  American  com- 
pany having  been  formed  for  that  purpose.  They 
promise  well,  and  the  necessary  railway  connections 
can  be  easily  made. 

At  present  the  only  important  workings  are  those  in 
the  Sierra  Maestra  Mountains,  near  the  city  of  San- 
tiago de  Cuba.  Here  the  metal  exists  in  great  and 
promising  abundance.  Two  American  associations — 
the  Juragua  and  the  Spanish-American  Iron  Com- 
panies— are  here  engaged  in  mining,  employing  from 
800  to  1400  men.  The  ores,  of  mixed  brown  and  red 
hematite,  are  of  unusual  richness,  yielding  from  sixty- 
five  to  sixty-eight  per  cent,  of  metal,  and  this  of  supe- 


44  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

rior  quality,  being  very  free  from  sulphur  and  phos- 
phorus. From  30,000  to  50,000  tons  of  ore  are  shipped 
monthly  to  the  United  States,  where  the  iron  is  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  steel,  much  of  it  for  armor-plate. 
There  are  numerous  undeveloped  veins  of  equal  rich- 
ness in  the  vicinity  of  Santiago,  several  of  them  be- 
longing to  the  Sigua  Iron  Company,  a  Philadelphia 
organization,  not  now  in  operation. 

The  Sierra  Maestra  ISIountains  also  contain  man- 
ganese ore,  various  deposits  existing  between  San- 
tiago and  Manzanillo.  The  veins  are  large  and  the 
ore  promising,  yielding  in  some  cases  fifty-eight  per 
cent,  of  metal  of  superior  quality.  A  recent  statement 
reports  for  the  island  one  hundred  and  thirty-eight 
mining  claims  of  iron,  eighty-eight  of  manganese, 
fifty-three  of  copper,  five  of  gold,  three  of  zinc,  two  of 
lead,  two  of  mercury,  one  of  chrome  iron,  and  one  of 
antimony.  But  these  exist  largely  on  paper,  and  while 
many  of  the  properties  covered  are  rich  in  metals,  the 
value  of  others  remains  in  doubt. 

MINERALS. 

Various  opinions  exist  concerning  the  presence  of 
coal,  which  has  been  claimed  to  occur  in  abundance 
in  many  localities,  alike  in  the  mountains  and  in  the 
lowlands.  A  deposit  near  Guanabacoa,  in  the  vicinity 
of  Havana,  which  has  been  mined  to  some  small  ex- 
tent, indicates  under  analysis  a  very  inferior  quality 
of  coal,  and  is  probably  merely  asphaltum.  The  large 
deposits  stated  to  exist  in  Santiago  province  await  in- 
vestigation, and  it  is  very  doubtful  if  they  are  not 
rather  lignite  than  true  coal. 

Much  of  what  has  been  claimed  as  coal  is  evidently 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  45 

asphaltum,  which  near  the  coast  often  becomes  semi- 
liquid,  resembHng  naphtha  or  petroleum.  This  native 
bitumen  was  used  by  the  discoverers  of  the  island  as 
pitch  to  repair  their  ships.  Asphaltum  occurs  in  all 
the  provinces  of  the  island  with  the  exception  of  Pinar 
del  Rio.  Considerable  deposits  of  it  exist  near  the 
cities  of  Villa  Clara  and  Cardenas.  The  Villa  Clara 
bed  is  some  twelve  feet  in  thickness  and  resembles 
lignite.  For  forty  years  past  it  has  furnished  the  ma- 
terial for  the  gas  supply  of  the  city,  and  shipments  of 
it  have  been  made  reaching  10,000  tons  per  year. 

The  Cardenas  deposits  exist  in  a  peculiar  situation, 
lying  at  the  bottom  of  the  bay,  covered  by  a  consider- 
able depth  of  water.  There  are  four  of  these  deposits 
near  the  city,  one  of  which  yields  a  very  fine  grade  of 
the  material,  used  for  varnish-making  in  the  United 
States.  The  water  is  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and 
twenty-five  feet  in  depth,  and  the  asphaltum  is  ob- 
tained by  dropping  on  it  a  long  iron  bar  from  a 
moored  vessel,  the  pieces  broken  of¥  being  brought  up 
by  naked  divers,  who  gather  them  into  scoop-nets. 
More  than  a  ton  is  thus  obtained  daily,  the  substance 
being  replaced  from  below  as  mined. 

There  are  three  other  deposits  of  lower  grade,  suit- 
able for  paving  or  roofing.  The  largest  of  these  is 
near  Diana  Key,  fifteen  miles  from  Cardenas,  at  a 
depth  of  twelve  feet.  During  the  past  twenty-five 
years  it  has  yielded  more  than  20,000  tons,  and  shows 
no  signs  of  exhaustion,  the  holes  made  in  it  constantly 
filling  up  from  beneath.  Petroleum  exists  in  a  similar 
manner  under  Havana  harbor,  through  whose  waters 
it  bubbles  up.  It  is  found  to  trickle  freely  from  the 
rocks  at  a  point  thirty-three  miles  east  of  Manzanillo, 


46  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

and  even  to  appear  at  points  in  the  streets  of  that  city. 
It  occurs  similarly  in  other  localities,  though  no  bor- 
ings or  other  tests  of  its  quantity  have  been  made. 

Cuba  is  rich  in  marbles  of  excellent  quality,  varying 
considerably  in  color  and  frequently  susceptible  of  a 
rich  polish.  These  are  found  in  the  provinces  gen- 
erally, but  most  abundantly  in  the  Isle  of  Pines,  which 
yields  many  varieties  noted  for  their  beauty.  A  thick 
slate,  suitable  for  floors  and  pavements,  is  obtained  in 
quarries  near  Havana,  and  slate  of  finer  quality  in  the 
Isle  of  Pines.  The  true  mineral  wealth  of  the  island 
of  Cuba  is  yet  unknown,  through  lack  of  sufficient  in- 
terest in  and  knowledge  of  mineralogy  among  the  in- 
habitants, and  future  exploration  may  develop  rich 
deposits  in  unsuspected  localities. 

Mineral  springs  are  numerous,  and  those  of  San 
Diego,  Madringa,  and  Guanabacoa  have  attained 
some  degree  of  celebrity.  The  last  named,  being 
within  a  few  miles  of  Havana,  is  a  place  of  common 
resort,  but  diflficulty  of  access  stands  in  the  way  of  the 
others  becoming  popular.  The  hot  springs  of  the  Isle 
of  Pines  are  rapidly  growing  famous,  and  the  village 
of  Santa  Fe,  where  they  are  situated,  yearly  attracts 
many  health  seekers  to  its  curative  waters.  The  num- 
ber of  cures  claimed  for  these  waters  is  surprisingly 
large. 

Salt  is  obtained  in  quantities  from  the  bordering 
keys  or  islets,  along  whose  margins  are  many  natural 
Salinas  (salt  pans).  These  are  shallow  depressions 
which  retain  the  salt  water,  to  be  evaporated  by  the 
sun.  Many  hundreds  of  tons  of  salt  are  annually  ob- 
tained from  the  salinas  along  the  inlet  of  Majana  and 
those  of  Chaco. 


NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS.  47 

The  richest  of  the  provinces  of  Cuba  in  mineral 
wealth  is  Santiago  de  Cuba,  which  embraces  the  most 
mountainous  districts  of  the  island.  Its  hills  yield 
gold,  iron,  copper,  manganese,  mercury,  zinc,  alabas- 
ter, marble,  rock  crystal,  and  asphalt;  while  its 
caverns  often  contain  beautiful  stalactites.  As  yet  the 
mineral  riches  have  been  developed  chiefly  in  the  im- 
mediate vicinity  of  the  capital  city  of  the  province,  and 
little  is  known  regarding  the  possible  wealth  in  min- 
erals of  the  intricate  system  of  the  cuchillas  and  the 
interior  sierras. 


IV,  CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS. 

GOVERNMENTAL  ORGANIZATION. 

The  close  of  the  insurrection  of  1868-78  was  fol- 
lowed by  a  series  of  so-called  reforms,  one  feature  of 
which  was  the  division  of  the  country  into  the  six  prov- 
inces whose  names  we  have  already  given.  Each  of 
these  provinces  has  for  capital  the  city  whose  name  it 
has  taken,  the  whole  being  divided  into  a  number  of 
judicial  districts,  twenty-six  in  all.  As  these  are  fre- 
quently spoken  of  without  mention  of  the  province 
in  which  they  are  situated,  it  is  desirable  to  specify 
them. 

Beginning  at  the  west,  we  find  in  the  province  of 
Pinar  del  Rio  the  districts  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  Guanajay, 
Guane,  and  San  Cristobal;  in  that  of  Havana  the  dis- 
tricts of  Havana,  Bejucal,  Guanabacoa,  Guines,  Ja- 
ruco,  Marianao,  and  San  Antonio  de  los  Bafios;  in 
that  of  Matanzas  those  of  Matanzas,  Alfonso  XII., 
Cardenas,  and  Colon;  in  Santa  Clara  those  of  Santa 
Clara,  Sagua  la  Grande,  Cienfuegos,  and  Juan  de  los 
Remedios;  in  Puerto  Principe  those  of  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe, and  Moron;  and  in  Santiago  de  Cuba  those  of 
Santiago  de  Cuba,  Baracoa,  Guantanamo,  Holguin, 
and  Manzanillo.  In  each  of  these  districts,  named 
from  its  central  city,  justice  has  been  administered, 
under  the  Spanish  system,  by  an  alcalde  mayor,  in 
association  with  the  ordinary  alcaldes  or  local  judges. 

The  "  reform"  of  1878,  under  which  the  insurgents 
48 


CIVIL   AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.      49 

were  induced  to  enter  into  a  treaty  of  peace,  contained 
measures  which  would  have  been  of  considerable 
benefit  to  the  island  if  properly  carried  out.  They  in- 
cluded sufifrage  under  a  property  qualification,  repre- 
sentation in  the  Cortes  at  Madrid,  elective  assemblies 
for  the  provinces  and  boards  of  aldermen  for  the  cities, 
and  other  features  which  we  do  not  need  to  mention, 
since  they  existed  only  on  paper.  Any  possible  bene- 
fit to  the  people  from  these  changes  in  the  political 
status  was  hindered  by  the  maintenance  of  the  cap- 
tain- (or  governor-)  general  in  his  absolute  authority. 
The  representation  in  the  Cortes  was  in  a  hopeless 
minority,  the  elections  were  manipulated  in  the  in- 
terest of  the'  Spanish  party,  and  the  captain-general 
could  suspend  any  legislative  body  or  remove  any 
mayor  at  will,  so  that  he  had  complete  control  of 'the 
situation.  The  judicial  system  was  similarly  held  in 
leading  strings,  since  this  powerful  functionary  had 
the  power  to  overrule  the  decisions  of  any  court,  and 
even  to  suspend  the  execution  of  an  order  coming 
from  the  government  of  Spain  itself. 

When  in  1895,  ^s  a  new  measure  of  "  reform"  in  re- 
sponse to  the  insurrection  of  that  year,  a  "  council  of 
administration"  was  appointed  seemingly  as  a  check 
on  the  captain-general,  the  fatuous  government  of 
Spain  took  special  pains  to  rob  this  council  of  even  the 
shadow  of  power.  The  captain-general  was  given 
authority  to  suspend  fourteen  of  the  thirty  members 
at  will,  and  if  the  remaining  sixteen  proved  trouble- 
some he  could  set  aside  all  their  acts  and  do  as  he 
pleased.  Such  a  system  held  the  very  essence  of  des- 
potism, and  as  regards  the  Spanish  system  of  colonial 
administration  it  will  suflfice  further  to  quote  the  an- 

4 


50  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

cient  adage,  "  \\' horn  the  gods  wish  to  destroy  they 
first  make  mad." 

DIVISIONS  OF  TERRITORY. 

The  island  of  Cuba  is  divided  in  popular  accepta- 
tion into  four  regions  which  do  not  agree  very  closely 
with  the  political  districts.  These  are  the  Vuelta 
Abajo  (the  lower  turn),  Vuelta  Arriba  (the  upper 
turn),  Los  Cinco  \'illas  (the  five  towns)  and  Tierro 
Adentro  (the  interior).  Of  these  popular  divisions  the 
Vuelta  Abajo  extends  from  Cape  San  Antonio  to  the 
meridian  of  Havana,  the  portion  between  this  meri- 
dian and  San  Cristobal,  in  Pinar  del  Rio,  being  spe- 
cially known  as  Los  Partidos.  Within  this  district  lies 
the  great  tobacco  region  of  Cuba,  which  yields  the 
finest  leaf  in  the  world.  The  Vuelta  Arriba  lies  be- 
tween Havana  and  Cienfuegos,  and  Los  Cinco  Villas 
between  the  latter  city  and  Puerto  Principe.  The  five 
towns  (now  cities)  are  Santa  Clara,  Sagua  la  Grande, 
Cienfuegos,  Trinidad,  and  Remedios.  This  district  is 
variable  in  its  borders,  being  extended  by  some  as  far 
east  as  Holguin.  Between  it  and  the  eastern  end  of 
the  island  lies  the  Tierro  Adentro,  which  includes  the 
chief  mountainous  regions. 

Other  boundaries  might  be  given  for  these  districts, 
which  are  far  from  well  defined  and  often  overlap;  but 
this  is  a  matter  of  no  special  importance,  while  the  fre- 
quent use  of  these  popular  terms  renders  an  acquaint- 
ance with  their  meaning  desirable. 

In  addition  to  the  popular  division,  there  are  ec- 
clesiastical and  political  divisions  of  the  island.  For 
religious  convenience  Cuba  is  divided  into  two  dio- 
ceses, the  bishopric  of  Havana  and  the  archbishopric 


CIVIL  AND    POLITICAL    RELATIONS.      51 

of  Santiago  de  Cuba.  The  bishop  and  archbishop 
divide  the  island  about  equally  between  them,  the  line 
of  delimination  crossing  the  province  of  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe near  its  western  boundary. 

The  political  division  of  the  island  is  into  six  prov- 
inces, each  of  which  bears  the  name  of  its  capital 
city.  These  are,  beginning  at  the  west  end,  Pinar  del 
Rio,  Havana,  Matanzas,  Santa  Clara,  Puerto  Principe, 
and  Santiago  de  Cuba.  They  are  further  subdivided 
into  judicial  districts  and  municipalities.  Camaguey, 
often  spoken  of  in  accounts  of  the  insurrection,  and 
still  in  popular  use,  was  the  former  name  of  the  terri- 
tory now  officially  known  as  Puerto  Principe. 


ABOLITION  OF  SLAVERY. 

The  insurrection  of  1868-78  did  one  good  work, 
it  enforced  the  abolition  of  that  system  of  slavery 
which  had  existed  in  the  island  since  its  original  set- 
tlement by  Spain.  Many  slaves  from  the  plantations 
had  joined  the  rebels  in  arms,  and,  probably  to  pre- 
vent a  continuance  of  this  and  to  enlist  the  negroes  in 
the  Spanish  cause,  a  law  was  passed  on  July  4,  1870, 
giving  freedom  to  all  slaves  who  had  served  with  or 
assisted  the  troops.  It  was  further  enacted  that  all 
children  of  slaves  born  after  that  date  should  be  free, 
and  all  slaves  who  had  reached  or  should  subsequently 
reach  the  age  of  sixty  years. 

In  the  capitulation  of  1878  the  insurgents  stipulated 
for  the  freedom  of  those  slaves  who  had  served  in 
their  ranks.  This  was  agreed  to,  and  the  government 
of  Spain,  in  its  desire  to  pacify  this  considerable  class 
of  the  population,  went  further,  and  on  February  13, 


52  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

1880,  passed  a  law  abolishing  slavery,  the  slaves  to 
remain  under  a  system  of  "  patronage"  until  1888. 
Two  years  before  that  period  expired,  on  October  7, 
1886,  a  decree  was  promulgated  declaring  the  patron- 
age at  an  end  and  the  slaves  free.  Thus  ended  a  sys- 
tem which  had  existed  in  Cuba  for  nearly  four  cen- 
turies. 

RELIGION. 

Religiously,  Cuba,  under  the  tutelage  of  Spain,  was 
a  true  son  of  the  mother  country,  intolerance  being 
maintained  in  the  colony  as  strictly  as  it  had  for  many 
centuries  been  maintained  at  home.  No  religion  but 
the  Roman  Catholic  was  permitted  to  exercise  its  rites 
upon  the  island.  The  Protestant,  the  Jew,  the  mem- 
ber of  any  Christian  or  non-Christian  sect  might  live 
and  breathe  upon  Cuban  soil,  but  he  must  avoid  any 
expression  of  religious  opinion  not  sanctioned  by  the 
Church  of  Rome,  and  from  end  to  end  of  the  island 
could  find  no  place  of  worship  devoted  to  his  special 
form  of  faith.  The  state  religion  was  sustained  at  state 
expense,  its  costs  being  met  out  of  the  revenues  of  the 
island.  It  cannot  be  said  that  it  was  well  sustained 
in  any  other  way,  the  religious  indifiference  of  the 
people  being  evident  to  every  traveller.  The  rites  of 
the  Church  seem  to  have  been  little  understood  and 
less  cared  for  by  the  easy-going  population,  while  the 
priests  troubled  themselves  not  a  whit  about  the  spirit, 
so  that  the  form  of  worship  was  observed  and  the 
revenues  were  duly  paid  over. 

Originally  there  was  but  one  diocese  in  Cuba,  that 
of  Santiago,  which  included  also  Florida  and  Louisi- 
ana. The  diocese  of  Havana  was  not  constituted  until 
1788.    In  1804  the  bishop  of  Santiago  was  elevated  to 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.      53 

the  dignity  of  archbishop,  an  honor  which  has  not 
been  conferred  upon  the  prelate  at  Havana.  The  ec- 
clesiastical government  of  the  island  is  divided  be- 
tween these  two  dignitaries  of  the  Church,  as  already 
stated,  and  the  minor  clergy  are  appointed  by  them. 

The  salaries  of  these  prelates,  under  the  old  regime, 
were  $18,000  annually.  What  they  are  likely  to  be 
under  the  new  regime  cannot  now  be  stated.  With  the 
passing  of  Cuba  from  under  the  dominion  of  Spain  the 
existence  of  a  state-supported  church  in  that  island 
reached  its  end,  and  the  intolerance  that  forbids  any 
other  form  of  worship  can  no  longer  be  sustained. 
Politics  and  religion  are  alike  in  a  transition  stage, 
from  which  radically  new  conditions  promise  soon  to 
emerge. 

MEANS  OF  COMMUNICATION. 

Cuba  is  very  poorly  provided  with  roads,  the  most 
of  those  dignified  with  the  title  being  rude  trails,  which 
can  rarely  be  traversed  with  comfort  in  the  dry  sea- 
son and  are  in  a  deplorable  state  during  the  rainy 
period.  Over  these  roads  merchandise  is  transported 
in  heavy  carts  drawn  by  oxen  or  mules,  or  on  the 
backs  of  pack  mules  where  the  roads  are,  as  usual 
during  the  rainy  season,  impassable  to  wheeled  vehi- 
cles. For  passenger  travel,  outside  the  cities  and  ofif 
the  lines  of  railway,  the  two-seated  volante  (flyer)  has 
long  been  a  favorite  vehicle,  and  a  very  comfortable 
one  considering  the  state  of  the  roads,  with  the  added 
advantage  that  it  cannot  be  overturned.  This  is  due 
to  the  great  height  of  its  two  wheels,  six  or  even  seven 
feet,  their  wide  distance  apart,  and  the  lowness  of  the 
carriage,  which  is  slung  from  the  axle  by  leather 
straps.     The  shafts  are  fifteen  feet  long,  one  horse 


54  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE, 

being  harnessed  in  them  and  the  postihon  riding  a 
second,  which  is  attached  by  traces  to  the  carriage. 
A  third  horse  is  sometimes  harnessed  on  the  other 
side  of  the  shaft.  This  carriage  is  pecuHar  to  Cuba, 
and  is  very  well  adapted  to  its  roads,  though  it  has 
vanished  from  the  cities.  As  formerly  used  in  city 
streets,  the  volantes  were  often  very  expensively  orna- 
mented by  wealthy  owners,  with  trimmings  of  silver 
and  sometimes  even  of  gold,  while  the  negro  postilion 
was  attired  in  a  scarlet  jacket  profusely  decorated  with 
gold  and  silver  braid,  high  jack-boots  with  big  silver 
buckles  at  the  knees,  and  huge  spurs,  cutting  a  figure 
that  must  have  made  him  the  delight  of*  small  boys. 
At  present  it  has  been  completely  replaced  by  the 
victoria,  now  so  abundant  in  the  streets  of  Havana. 

Of  the  highways,  the  longest  and  best  known  is  the 
Caniino  Central  (central  road),  which  extends  from 
Havana  to  Santiago,  passing  through  the  intermediate 
interior  towns.  There  are  in  all  some  two  hundred 
and  fifty  miles  of  turnpikes  or  paved  roads,  known  as 
calsadas.  Of  these  the  longest  is  that  extending  from 
Havana  to  San  Cristobal  and  thence  to  Pinar  del  Rio. 
There  are  a  few  others  varying  from  twelve  to  thirty 
miles  in  length,  and  a  considerable  number  of  short 
ones  in  and  adjoining  towns  and  cities.  With  these 
exceptions,  the  roads  of  the  island  are  largely  left  to 
nature,  and  are  rarely  in  condition  for  rapid  and  agree- 
able travel. 

The  fact  that  most  of  the  large  towns  of  Cuba  are 
seaports,  and  readily  reached  by  water,  has  stood  in 
the  way  of  active  railroad  construction  on  the  island. 
The  total  length  of  track  is  something  over  a  thou- 
sand miles,  made  up  principally  of  comparatively  short 


CIVIL   AND    POLITICAL   RELATIONS.      55 

lines  connecting  important  places.  The  most  popu- 
lous districts  of  the  island  are  traversed  by  the  lines  of 
the  United  Railways  Company,  four  in  number,  which 
run  from  Havana  respectively  to  Matanzas,  Bata- 
bano,  La  Union,  and  Guanajay.  At  these  places  con- 
nections are  made  with  other  roads.  The  Western 
Railway  extends  from  Havana  to  Pinar  del  Rio,  trav- 
ersing the  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco  country.  Railways 
run  to  inland  cities  from  the  several  ports  to  the  east- 
ward, including  Matanzas,  Cardenas,  Sagua  la  Grande, 
Nuevitas,  Caibarien,  and  Cienfuegos.  Santa  Clara, 
for  instance,  is  connected  with  Cienfuegos  on  the 
south  and  Cardenas  on  the  north  by  rail,  Puerto  Prin- 
cipe with  Nuevitas,  etc.  One  line,  the  Jucaro-Moron, 
built  for  military  purposes,  crosses  the  island  in  the 
province  of  Puerto  Principe,  following  the  course  of 
the  trocha  which  extended  here  from  Jucaro  in  the 
north  to  Moron  in  the  south.  The  Santiago  Railway 
extends  about  thirty-three  miles  inland,  winding 
through  the  mountain  valleys  and  gradually  ascend- 
ing, its  terminus  being  at  San  Luis.  There  are  short 
roads  at  various  points,  as  at  Guantanamo,  from 
Havana  to  adjoining  towns,  etc.,  and  with  the  main 
lines  are  connected  many  private  roads,  mostly  nar- 
row gauge,  built  by  the  sugar  planters  for  conven- 
ience in  moving  their  crops.  Street  railways  also 
traverse  the  streets  of  Havana  and  some  other  cities. 
It  can  scarcely  be  doubted  that  American  enterprise 
will,  before  many  years,  extend  railway  communica- 
tion from  Pinar  del  Rio  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  along 
the  axis  of  the  island,  passing  through  all  the 
important  intermediate  towns  and  connecting  by 
branches  with  the  principal  places  off  the  main  line. 


56  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Steamboats  connect  the  coast  ports,  running  with 
some  regularity  between  Havana  and  all  the  principal 
places  on  the  north  coast  and  reaching  Guantanamo 
and  Santiago  on  the  south.  There  are  southern  lines 
which  ply  east  and  west  from  Batabano,  touching  at 
all  the  ports  of  the  south  coast,  and  extending  south- 
ward to  the  Isle  of  Pines.  The  railway  from  Havana 
to  Batabano  offers  ready  connection  from  the  capital 
with  these  lines,  so  that  Havana  has  water  communi- 
cation, direct  or  indirect,  with  all  the  ports  of  the 
island. 

The  Cuban  coast  towns  have  frequent  communica- 
tion by  steamship  lines  with  Europe  and  the  United 
States,  there  being  lines  from  Havana  to  Spanish, 
French,  and  German  ports  and  a  monthly  steamer 
from  Vera  Cruz  to  Southampton,  touching  at  Havana. 
Key  West  is  in  semi-weekly  communication  with 
Havana;  there  are  lines  from  New  York  to  all  the 
important  Cuban  ports,  north  and  south,  and  mercan- 
tile lines  from  Philadelphia,  New  Orleans,  and  other 
cities  to  various  Cuban  ports. 

Havana,  Santiago,  and  Cienfuegos  have  submarine 
telegraph  connection  with  various  countries,  while 
wires  run  from  these  cities  to  all  the  towns  and  villages 
of  any  importance  on  the  island,  and  a  submarine  cable 
connects  Cienfuegos  and  Santiago.  The  International 
Ocean  Telegraph  Company  connects  Havana  by  cable 
with  Florida;  the  West  India  and  Panama  Telegraph 
Company  with  Santiago,  Jamaica,  Porto  Rico,  the 
Lesser  Antilles,  and  the  Isthmus  of  Panama;  and  the 
French  Submarine  Cable  Company  with  Santiago, 
Hayti,  San  Domingo,  Venezuela,  and  Brazil.  The 
extent  and  good  service  of  these  cable  lines  was  shown 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.      57 

by  the  great  difficulty  experienced  in  attempts  to  cut 
off  telegraph  communication  with  Spain  during  the 
recent  war. 

The  Cuban  telegraph  system  is  the  property  of  the 
government,  and  the  same  is  the  case  with  the  tele- 
phone system,  which  is  widely  in  use  in  Havana,  con- 
necting with  all  the  public  and  most  of  the  private 
buildings  in  the  city  and  suburbs.  The  island  pos- 
sesses a  total  of  about  2300  miles  of  telegraph  line. 


POPULATION. 

Cuba  is  rather  sparsely  peopled,  considering  its  fer- 
tility and  abundant  capacity  for  food  production.  At 
the  last  regular  census,  that  of  1887,  the  total  popula- 
tion was  1,631,687.  The  estimated  population  in  1894 
was  1,723,000.  Since  that  date,  as  a  result  of  the  in- 
surrection, with  its  fatal  accompaniments  of  disease 
and  starvation,  there  has  been  a  marked  decrease, 
several  hundred  thousand  of  the  population  having 
perished.  The  State  of  Pennsylvania,  of  practically 
the  same  area,  has  a  population  which  may  be  esti- 
mated at  5,500,000,  more  than  three  times  that  of 
Cuba.  But  this  is  in  great  part  a  result  of  its  manu- 
facturing interests  and  large  city  population.  Vir- 
ginia, rural  like  Cuba,  and  closely  approaching  it  in 
area,  has  approximately  the  same  population. 

The  population  of  Cuba  has  been  steadily  growing 
during  the  century.  In  1787  it  amounted  to  176,167. 
From  that  date  there  was  a  rapid  increase,  the  total 
reaching  635,604  in  1817,  thirty  years  later.  It 
reached  the  million  mark  in  1841.  In  1867,  just  before 
the  outbreak  of  the  rebellion,  it  was  1,426,475.     Its 


58  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

subsequent   increase  was   for  years  checked   by   the 
troubles  on  the  island. 

The  population,  as  at  present  constituted,  consists 
of  five  classes: — i.  Natives  of  Spain — many  of  whom 
sought  Cuba  as  ofifice  holders,  while  others  were  in- 
dustrial immigrants.  2.  Cubans  of  Spanish  descent. 
3.  Whites  of  other  origin.  4.  Negroes  of  pure  and 
of  mixed  blood.  5.  Laborers  from  Eastern  Asia.  As 
regards  the  original  Indian  population,  it  had  prob- 
ably disappeared  by  1700,  and  perhaps  considerably 
earlier.  There  are  one  or  two  villages  in  Santiago  de 
Cuba  whose  inhabitants  are  claimed  to  be  of  Indian 
descent,  but  this  claim  lacks  evidence,  and  it  is  ques- 
tionable if  any  trace  of  Indian  blood  runs  in  the  veins 
of  these  people. 

Negro  slavery  has  existed  in  Cuba  since  its  earliest 
days,  the  negroes  taking  the  place  of  the  rapidly  van- 
ishing aborigines.  The  laws  of  Spain  controlling 
these  people  have  not  been  severe,  each  slave  had  his 
own  cabin  and  patch  of  ground  and  was  allowed  cer- 
tain hours  for  home  tillage,  and  he  was  given  the  op- 
portunity of  purchasing  his  freedom.  Law,  it  is  true, 
has  not  very  well  controlled  the  actions  of  the  slave- 
holders, and  the  negroes  have  often  been  subjected  to 
harsh  treatment;  yet  there  has  long  been  a  class  of 
free  negroes,  who  have  during  the  present  century  in- 
creased with  considerable  rapidity.  In  1810  the  island 
held  about  110,000  free  negroes  to  212,000  slaves.  At 
the  census  of  1867  there  were  248,703  free  negroes  to 
344,615  slaves.  The  act  of  gradual  emancipation  of 
1870  and  the  treaty  of  1878  added  largely  to  the  num- 
ber of  free  negroes,  and  in  1879  the  blacks  num- 
bered 287,827  free  to  171,097  slaves.    At  the  date  of 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.      59 

the  census  of  1887  slavery  was  at  an  end,  the  negro 
population  (all  free)  being  485,187,  something  over 
one-fourth  the  total  population.  These  include,  as  in 
the  United  States,  all  that  have  negro  blood  in  their 
veins,  though  they  may  be  three-fourths  or  even  in  a 
larger  proportion  white. 

The  manumitted  negroes  do  not  take  kindly  to 
small  farming,  and  few  of  them  have  places  of  their 
own,  they  preferring  to  work  on  the  sugar  plantations 
or  as  laborers  in  the  cities  and  towns.  The  mulattoes 
usually  reside  in  the  cities  and  follow  some  skilled  oc- 
cupation, being  engaged  in  the  manufacture  of  shoes, 
cigars,  or  clothing,  in  carpentry,  and  in  other  artisan 
labors. 

Of  the  Cuban  whites  a  considerable  proportion, 
perhaps  one-fifth,  are  natives  of  Spain,  Members  of 
this  class,  under  the  Spanish  dominion,  held  all  offi- 
cial positions  of  afty  value.  The  colonists  from  Spain 
have  the  credit  of  being  far  the  most  industrious  peo- 
ple on  the  island,  the  next  in  order  being  the  intelli- 
gent and  educated  Cubans,  largely  of  recent  Spanish 
descent.  The  enervating  climate  of  the  island  seems 
to  have  taken  the  disposition  for  hard  work  out  of 
those  of  native  ancestry  and  given  them  a  hereditary 
love  of  ease. 

Cuba  has  only  a  small  population  of  whites  of  other 
than  Spanish  origin,  perhaps  not  more  than  10,000  in 
all.  There  is  still  another  class  of  inhabitants,  the 
Asiatic  coolies,  imported  principally  from  China, 
whose  lot  is  far  from  a  satisfactory  or  agreeable  one. 
The  first  of  these,  679  in  number,  were  brought  to 
Havana  in  1847,  and  they  have  since  been  added  to 
until  they   number  perhaps  more  than  30,000;    the 


6o 


OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 


actual  number  is  unknown.  Coolie  labor  is  not  called 
slavery,  but  is  in  some  respects  worse  than  slavery. 
The  coolie  is  not  a  native  of  the  soil  like  the  negro, 
with  his  home  and  family  relations  and  his  assimila- 
tion to  his  master  in  language,  religion,  and  customs, 
but  remains  an  alien,  bound  to  work  a  fixed  number 
of  years  for  small  pay.  No  women  being  brought 
with  them,  these  Chinese  laborers  have  no  domestic 
life,  and  the  only  interest  their  employer  takes  in  them 
is  to  get  from  them  all  possible  labor.  The  result  is 
frequently  a  physical  wreck,  worn  out  by  hard  work 
and  change  of  climate. 

The  following  table  shows  the  numbers  and  density 
of  population  in  the  several  provinces  at  the  date  of 
the  most  recent  official  census,  that  of  1887: 


Provinces. 

Inhabitants. 

Square 
Kilometres. 

Density. 

Pinar  del  Rio .... 

Havana 

Matanzas     .        ... 
Santa  Clara     .... 
Puerto  Principe  .    .    . 
Santiago  de  Cuba  .    . 

225,891 
451,928 
259,578 
354,122 
67,789 
272,379 

14,967 

8,610 

8,486 

23,083 

32,341 

35,"9 

15-09 
5249 
30-59 
1534 
2.10 
7.76 

Totals   ...... 

1,631,687 

122,606 

13-31 

EDUCATION. 

The  leading  educational  institution  in  Cuba  is  that 
known,  under  the  Spanish  regime,  as  the  Royal  Uni- 
versity of  Havana.  Its  official  report  of  the  date  of 
1890  shows  a  division  into  the  five  departments  of 
Philosophy  and  Letters,  Medicine,  Pharmacy,  Law, 
and   Science,  there  being   eighty-six   professors,  in- 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.      6i 

eluding  assistants,  and  1046  students.  The  corner- 
stone of  the  buildings  now  occupied  was  laid  in  1884. 
Each  of  the  six  provinces  has  its  separate  collegiate 
institute,  whose  power  of  conferring  degrees  is  limited 
to  that  of  bachelor  or  licentiate.  These  had  a  total  of 
2909  students. 

There  is  in  addition  an  Havana  School  of  Painting 
and  Sculpture,  with  454  scholars,  and  a  Professional 
School  of  the  Industrial  Arts,  with  fifty-three.  The 
arts  of  common  industry  would  not,  from  this  state- 
ment, seem  to  be  in  much  favor  among  students  as 
compared  with  the  fine  arts.  In  1895,  the  public  or 
municipal  schools  held  36,747  scholars.  A  law  was 
passed  in  1880  making  education  compulsory,  but 
judging  from  the  above  figures  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  put  it  into  effect.  While  the  proportion  of 
school  children  to  the  total  population  in  the  most 
favored  division  of  the  United  States  is  about  one  to 
four,  and  even  in  Spain  one  to  nine,  that  of  Cuba  is 
one  to  twenty-five,  showing  that  there  must  be  a  large 
percentage  of  illiteracy  in  the  island.  Of  the  small 
sum  appropriated  for  education  out  of  the  revenues, 
none  has  been  applied  in  aid  of  the  common  schools, 
which  are  sustained  by  municipal  aid*  The  education 
to  be  obtained  in  them  seems  to  be  of  a  very  element- 
ary kind.  The  number  of  private  schools  approaches 
that  of  the  public  ones,  these  schools  being  credited 
with  28,249  pupils.  They  include  the  various  institu- 
tions of  private  benevolence  which  add  instruction  to 
their  other  duties. 


V.  CENTRES  OF  POPULATION. 

HAVANA,  THE  CAPITAL  CITY. 

San  Cristobal  de  la  Habana,  to  give  the  full  Spanish 
name  to  this  picturesque  and  important  city  of  the 
American  tropics,  is  admirably  situated  for  commerce, 
lying  as  it  does  on  one  of  the  finest  harbors  of  the 
world,  with  noble  entrance  and  deep  and  spacious 
interior.  The  vessel  approaching  Havana  passes 
through  a  channel  nearly  looo  feet  wide  and  more 
than  4000  feet  long,  free  from  bar  or  rock,  and 
emerges  into  an  ample  bay,  dividing  up  interiorly  into 
three  distinct  arms,  and  capable  of  sheltering  in  its 
broad  expanse  a  thousand  ships,  and  of  protecting 
them  from  any  storm  less  violent  than  a  hurricane, 
while  the  water  is  deep  enough  to  permit  them  to 
moor  close  to  the  wharves.  A  lofty  lighthouse  rises 
on  the  left  of  the  entrance,  which  is  defended  by  a 
series  of  fortifications,  some  of  them  famous  for  their 
antiquity.  On  the  east  side  of  the  entrance  are  the 
celebrated  Morro  Castle  and  the  fortress  of  San  Carlos 
de  la  Cabafia.  the  first  of  which,  also  entitled  the  Cas- 
tle of  the  Three  Kings,  dates  from  1589.  Opposite, 
on  the  west  side,  stands  the  Castillo  de  la  Punta,  a 
much  smaller  fort  than  the  Morro,  but  of  equal  an- 
tiquity. Fronting  the  entrance  channel  for  a  distance 
of  800  yards  extends  the  Cabana  fortress,  its  barracks 
ample  enough  to  give  accommodation  to  4000  men. 
Farther  inland  on  the  bay  side  is  Casa  Blanca,  another 
62 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  63 

old  fort,  east  of  which,  on  a  hill  one  hundred  feet  high, 
is  a  redoubt  named  San  Diego,  On  the  most  westerly 
of  the  hills  curving  around  the  city  stands  the  Castillo 
del  Principe,  a  conspicuous  fortification.  The  Castle 
of  Atares,  on  one  of  the  inland  bays,  dates  from  about 
1763. 

The  Morro  is  a  substantial  stone  fortress  of  the  old 
style,  with  thick  and  solid  walls  and  a  deep  dry  moat, 
and  is  quite  capable  of  holding  its  own  against  old 
style  guns.  How  well  it  would  withstand  the  batter- 
ing of  modern  rifled  cannon  is  another  question.  No 
trial  of  it  was  made  in  the  late  war.  The  Cabafia  for- 
tress is  the  largest  on  the  island,  and  is  claimed  to  be 
one  of  the  best  in  the  world.  It  is  built  on  a  precipi- 
tous bank  that  rises  directly  from  the  water-side,  en- 
abling it  to  overlook  the  town  and  command  most  of 
the  bay.  Built,  like  the  Morro,  of  solid  stone,  it  has 
the  appearance  of  immense  strength,  while  its  great 
length  gives  it  an  enormous  capacity  for  mounting 
guns.  More  ancient  still  than  the  Morro  and  the 
Punta  is  the  Castillo  de  la  Fuerza,  built  in  1538  by 
Fernando  de  Soto,  while  governor  of  the  island,  to 
protect  the  city  from  its  piratical  enemies.  It  is  now 
within  the  city  streets,  and  presents  an  interesting  ex- 
ample of  a  mediaeval  fortress,  retaining  much  of  its 
original  form  of  a  star-shaped,  bastioned  fort. 

The  city  of  Havana  lies  on  the  west  side  of  the  bay, 
fronting  its  waters  and  those  of  the  entrance  channel, 
while  it  has  another  front  facing  the  ocean,  along 
whose  waters  it  extends  for  some  distance.  It  is  low- 
lying,  but  presents  an  attractive  and  picturesque  ap- 
pearance to  the  approaching  stranger,  with  its  bright- 
colored  walls,  its  red-tiled  roofs,  and  the  green  of  its 


64  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

trees,  under  the  glare  of  the  tropical  sun.  No  other 
city  in  the  Western  world  presents  so  oriental  an 
aspect.  The  throng  of  shipping  in  the  spacious  bay 
adds  to  the  beauty  of  the  scene,  the  ships  from  far-off 
ports  being  added  to  by  numbers  of  local  trading  ves- 
sels and  hundreds  of  passenger  boats,  with  parti- 
colored sails,  in  constant  motion  about  the  bay.  These 
look  strange  to  unaccustomed  eyes,  with  their  awn- 
ings supported  by  a  basket-like  frame-work,  and  add 
their  share  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the  scene. 

The  bay  of  Havana  has  an  extreme  length  of  three 
and  a  half  miles  and  a  maximum  wndth  of  one  and  a 
half  miles,  while  the  available  extent  is  something 
over  one  mile  in  length  and  less  than  one  mile  in 
width.  It  branches  into  three  principal  cpves,  while 
there  are  many  small  indentations.  Its  greatest  depth 
is  forty  feet,  but  vessels  of  over  twenty  feet  draught 
are  restricted  to  a  comparatively  limited  space.  On 
the  east  side  of  the  bay  is  the  commercial  suburb  of 
Regla,  notable  for  its  Depositos  Mercantil,  immense' 
warehouses  of  solid  stone  for  the  storage  of  sugar. 
These  consist  of  a  long  series  of  one-storied  build- 
ings of  great  height,  the  heavy  iron  beams  and  cor- 
rugated iron  of  the  roof  being  supported  by  numer- 
ous pillars  of  iron.  They  stand  on  the  bay  shore, 
their  doors  opening  on  substantial  wharves,  and 
have  few  rivals  for  capacity  and  systematic  manage- 
ment. Another  of  the  attractions  of  Regla,  at  least  to 
the  Spaniard,  is  its  famous  bull-ring,  where  numbers 
of  bulls  and  horses  are  annually  sacrificed  on  the  altar 
of  Spanish  taste.  At  some  distance  from  Regla,  on 
the  same  side  of  the  bay,  stands  the  old  town  of 
Guanabacoa,  of  some  30,000  population,  which  dates 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  65 

back  to  1554,  and  was  originally  an  Indian  village. 
Its  principal  modern  attraction  is  the  Santa  Rita  min- 
eral baths,  claimed  to  have  performed  remarkable 
cures.  The  waters,  which  are  cool  and  pleasant  to  the 
taste,  pour  out  of  a  rocky  basin,  and  are  so  fully  im- 
pregnated with  bitumen,  iron,  potash,  and  magnesia 
that  the  mineral  substances  form  a  thick  layer  upon 
the  surface. 

Havana,  a  city  peopled  by  more  than  200,000  souls 
(perhaps  300,000,  if  all  the  suburbs  be  included),  popu- 
larly consists  of  two  widely  diliferent  sections,  the  city 
within  and  the  city  without  the  walls;  though  little 
trace  of  walls  is  to-day  to  be  seen.  The  walls  which 
enclosed  the  ancient  city  were  completed  in  1702,  but 
were  almost  entirely  demolished  in  1863,  the  streets 
having  long  before  spread  far  beyond  them.  The  old 
city  lies  close  to  the  harbor,  and  is  made  up  of  streets 
so  narrow  as  to  render  wheeled  traffic  within  it  the 
reverse  of  convenient.  These  contracted  streets  are 
normally  dirty  and  insalubrious;  the  drainage  being 
anything  but  scientific,  and  the  badly-kept  pavements 
so  impregnated  with  filth  as  to  be  sickening  to  the 
senses  of  a  foreigner.  The  Cuban  nasal  organ  is  na- 
tive to  the  situation  and  not  easily  disturbed. 

The  lot  of  the  foot-passenger  in  the  old  town  is  not 
an  agreeable  one.  The  narrow  streets  are  abundantly 
occupied  by  vehicles,  while  the  sidewalks,  where  any 
exist,  are  so  narrow  that  it  is  no  easy  matter  for  two 
persons  to  pass.  One  must  brush  the  wall  and  the 
other  perhaps  be  forced  ofif  the  narrow  flag-stone  into 
the  street.  But  he  can  step  into  its  mu^dy  midway 
only  at  imminent  risk  of  being  run  into  by  some  hasty 
carriage  or  other  vehicle.    Many  of  the  streets  are  so 

5 


66  OUR   ISLAND  EMPIRE. 

narrow  that  it  is  impossible  for  two  vehicles  to  pass 
each  other,  so  that  carriages  and  carts  can  only  move 
in  one  direction,  directing  signs  being  placed  at  the 
street  corners. 

One  advantage  of  these  narrow  streets  is  that  they 
aid  in  keeping  out  the  hot  beams  of  the  tropical  sun. 
This  is  helped  by  bright-colored  awnings,  which  cross 
from  roof  to  roof  at  intervals  and  throw  downward  a 
grateful  shade.  Below,  in  the  business  thoroughfares, 
extend  rows  of  stores,  with  handsome  windows  and 
their  shelves  almost  upon  the  streets,  most  of  their 
goods  being  displayed  in  the  broad  windows.  For 
signs  they  do  not  trust  to  a  mere  name  and  number, 
but  present  some  striking  title  and  design,  such  as 
"  The  Green  Cross,"  "  The  Nymphs,"  "  The  Looking- 
Glass,"  "  The  Golden  Lion,"  "  Diana,"  "  Virtue,"  and 
other  curious  names. 

In  the  new  town  modern  ideas  about  city  building 
have  largely  prevailed,  there  being  many  wide  and 
handsome  avenues,  often  fringed  with  rows  of  stately 
palms,  and  with  broad  macadamized  drives  in  the 
centre.  These  are  bordered  with  leafy  gardens  and 
solidly  built  stone  houses,  having  verandas  and  flat 
roofs.  Iron  bars  guard  the  windows  in  place  of  glazed 
sashes,  while  the  walls  are  gay  with  varied  bright 
colors  and  with  decorations  in  white  marble,  which  is 
lavishly  used  in  Havana  both  for  shops  and  dwellings. 

The  houses  are  usually  one  story  in  height,  rarely 
two,  and  have  broad  and  massive  doors,  thickly 
studded  with  knobs  and  decorations,  and  thick, 
strong  walls,  that  look  as  if  built  for  defence  against 
enemies.  The  prison-like  aspect  given  by  the  win- 
dow-bars is  relieved  by  the  bright  colors  in  which  they 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  67 

are  painted.  The  walls,  built  of  a  peculiar  porous 
shell-conglomerate  glaringly  white  in  color,  are  nearly 
always  covered  with  stucco,  whose  bright  colors  of 
yellow,  green,  and  blue  harmonize  well  with  the 
glowing  atmosphere.  The  dwellings,  of  combined 
Gothic  and  Saracenic  architecture,  are  so  constructed 
as  to  leave  an  open  square  in  the  centre, — the  house 
being  divided  into  living-room,  store-room,  chambers, 
and  stable,  while  the  street  entrance  is  usually  blocked 
up  in  part  by  the  family  vehicle.  If  there  is  a  second 
story,  it  is  reached  by  a  broad  flight  of  stairs,  and  con- 
tains the  sleeping-chambers,  opening  upon  a  corridor 
facing  the  court. 

Plavana  is  to-day,  as  in  the  past,  a  city  of  smells  and 
noises.  Little  efifort  is  made  at  cleaning  the  streets  or 
draining  the  houses,  and  such  drainage  as  does  take 
place  pours  its  impurities  into  the  harbor,  which  is 
yearly  filling  up  with  foul  accretions.  Yet  for  tliis  con- 
version of  the  harbor  into  a  filth-pool  there  seems  no 
excuse  of  necessity,  since  the  city,  lying  between  the 
harbor  and  the  ocean,  is  admirably  situated  for  carry- 
ing its  drainage  into  the  open  sea.  The  streets,  stone 
paved  and  abundantly  occupied  by  vehicles,  driven 
often  with  reckless  speed,  are  a  scene  of  constant  rat- 
tle, to  which  the  street  railway  cars  add  their  share. 
The  avenues  are  abundantly  provided  with  restau- 
rants, cafes,  casinos,  and  club-houses,  which  are  largely 
frequented,  home  life  being  a  feature  of  the  north 
which  has  little  existence  among  the  well-to-do  peo- 
ple of  this  city  of  the  south. 

Havana  is  nowhere  surpassed  for  the  number  and 
the  beauty  of  its  public  parks  and  promenades.  Most 
prominent   among   these   are   the    Plaza    de    Armas, 


6S  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

facing  the  governor's  palace;  the  Alameda  de  Paula, 
a  bay-side  embankment;  the  Parque  Central;  and  the 
Paseo  de  Tacon,  whose  magnificent  drive  is  shaded  by 
double  rows  of  trees.  In  addition  may  be  named  the 
Paseo  Isabel  or  the  Prado,  a  long  and  handsome 
boulevard;  the  Campo  de  Marte,  or  drill  park;  the 
highly  attractive  Botanical  Gardens;  and  the  gardens 
of  Los  Molinos,  long  the  suburban  residence  of  the 
captain-generals.  The  avenues  named,  with  others 
that  might  be  mentioned,  charm  the  visitor  with  their 
trees,  flowers,  fountains,  and  statuary,  and  with  their 
liveliness,  they  being  almost  constantly  crowded  with 
handsome  open  carriages  and  well-dressed  prome- 
naders.  Only  for  "  its  smells  and  its  noises,"  as  one 
writer  says,  Havana  would  be  one  of  the  most  pleasing 
of  cities. 

Its  fashionable  driveway,  the  Paseo  de  Tacon,  is  two 
or  three  miles  long,  lined  with  beautiful  villas  and  rich 
gardens  filled  with  tropical  plants.  It  has  two  car- 
riage-ways and  two  foot-ways,  with  rows  of  stately 
trees  between.  No  other  city  in  America  has  its  equal 
as  an  avenue.  Opening  from  it,  near  its  outer  ex- 
tremity, are  the  Botanical  Gardens,  adjoining  which 
are  the  equally  beautiful  Los  Molinos  gardens,  made 
free  to  the  public  by  their  late  owners,  the  captain- 
generals.  Those  charming  places  of  resort  are  open 
day  and  night,  an3  an  evening  stroll  through  their 
beautiful  walks,  surrounded  by  the  most  exquisite  of 
tropical  flowers  and  plants,  is  nowhere  to  be  sur- 
passed. The  Botanical  Gardens  contain  specimens  of 
almost  every  plant  of  the  tropics,  growing  freely  in 
the  open  air,  while  in  the  centre  a  large  stone  basin  is 
filled  with  water  lilies,  surrounding  a  rustic  fountain 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  69 

made  of  shells.  From  these  gardens  one  can  stroll 
into  those  of  Los  Molinos,  with  their  great  variety  of 
tropical  trees  and  flowers  and  their  magnificent 
avenue  of  palms,  one  of  the  finest  on  the  island.  The 
place  seems  a  wilderness  of  blossoms,  exotic  and  na- 
tive, and  possesses  an  interesting  aviary,  leaping  foun- 
tains, and  other  features  of  attraction. 

One  of  the  most  striking  objects  in  a  general  view 
of  the  city  of  Havana  is  what  has  long  been  known  as 
the  Royal  Prison,  a  large  yellow  building  occupying 
a  whole  city  block.  This,  built  in  1771,  forms  a  hollow 
square,  the  interior  area  being  used  as  a  place  of  exer- 
cise for  the  prisoners.  It  has  cells  for  five  hundred 
captives  and  barracks  for  a  regiment,  the  cells  being 
in  the  rear  and  the  front  occupied  by  offices  and  quar- 
ters. This  massive  edifice,  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
Punta  fortress,  fronts  on  one  of  the  choice  avenues  of 
the  city,  the  Prado,  a  wide  boulevard  nearly  two  miles 
long,  whose  centre  is  ornamented  with  rows  of  trees 
and  possesses  stone  seats  and  a  promenade,  while  a 
carriage-way  extends  on  either  side. 

The  Prado,  starting  from  the  seaside  near  the  Punta 
fortress  and  passing  nearly  in  the  line  of  the  old  city 
wall,  has  facing  it  or  in  its  vicinity  the  finest  buildings 
and  the  most  attractive  portions  of  the  city  proper. 
The  fashionable  Parque  Central,  with  its  adornment 
of  trees,  shrubbery,  and  flowers,  and  surrounded  by 
handsome,  colonnaded  buildings,  forms  an  enlarge- 
ment of  this  avenue,  and  is  one  of  the  liveliest  and 
most  attractive  features  of  the  city.  Fronting  on  it 
are  the  Hotel  Inglaterra,  the  best  and  largest  in  Cuba; 
the  famous  Tacon  Theatre,  the  Alibasu  Theatre,  the 
Spanish  Casino,  and  other  striking  buildings,  while 


70  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

around  it  extend  open-air  cafes,  brilliantly  lighted  by 
night,  and  gay  as  those  of  the  Parisian  boulevards. 
On  certain  evenings  of  the  week  a  military  band  plays 
here,  while  crowds  of  well-dressed  people  promenade 
or  seat  themselves  in  the  neighboring  cafes  and  bal- 
conies. 

The  palace  recently  occupied  by  the  captain-general 
faces  the  Plaza  de  Armas,  and  is  a  large  yellow  build- 
ing, two  stories  in  height,  the  upper  floor  being  sup- 
ported on  the  front  by  open  stone  colonnades,  which 
give  an  excellent  architectural  effect.  The  central 
colonnade  forms  an  archway  leading  into  the  hand- 
somely-adorned court-yard  within. 

Of  the  churches  of  Havana,  some  of  them  imposing 
in  size,  others  famous  for  antiquity,  the  one  most 
likely  to  attract  the  attention  of  the  stranger  is  the 
Cathedral.  This  edifice,  built  in  1724  for  a  Jesuit  col- 
lege and  converted  into  a  cathedral  in  1789,  is  con- 
structed of  the  yellowish-white  calcareous  sandstone 
of  the  island,  but  now  presents  a  battered  and  black- 
ened aspect.  The  fagade,  with  its  pillars,  niches,  and 
mouldings,  and  its  two  high  flanking  towers,  is  pecu- 
liar and  striking  in  appearance  rather  than  beautiful. 
Numerous  bells,  some  of  them  ancient,  hang  in  the 
towers,  and  daily  call  the  worshippers  to  matins  and 
vespers. 

Interiorly  the  church  is  attractive,  with  its  richly 
frescoed  walls,  its  floor  of  variegated  marble,  and  its 
lofty  dome  supported  by  pillars  of  marble,  while  the 
stalls  of  the  priests  are  beautifully  carved  in  polished 
mahogany,  the  designs  being  light  and  graceful.  Sev- 
eral beautiful  altars  stand  at  intervals  around  the  walls, 
having  pillars,  cornices,  and  mouldings  of  solid  ma- 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  71 

hogany,  the  prominent  parts  richly  gilt.  The  grand 
altar,  with  its  porphyry  pillars,  its  images,  candle- 
sticks, and  other  adornments,  is  a  handsome  structure, 
as  is  also  the  choir  in  its  rear. 

But  the  great  object  of  interest  has  long  been  the 
tomb  of  Columbus,  the  remains  of  the  great  discoverer 
having,  in  1796,  been  brought  to  Havana  from  the  city 
of  San  Domingo,  when  the  island  of  Hayti  was  ceded 
to  France.  The  urn  containing  these  sacred  relics 
was  deposited  with  great  ceremony  in  a  niche  in  the 
wall,  marked  by  a  marble  tablet  on  which  was  placed 
a  bust  of  Columbus,  in  the  costume  of  his  age,  but 
sadly  lacking  artistic  merit.  Beneath  was  an  inscrip- 
tion in  Castilian,  similarly  lacking  poetic  taste.  Ren- 
dered into  English  it  has  the  following  grandiloquent 
significance: 

"  Oh,  rest  thou,  image  of  the  great  Colon, 
Thousand  centuries  remain,  guarded  in  the  urn, 
And  in  the  memory  of  our  nation." 

The  thousand  centuries,  however,  have  proved  little 
more  than  one  century,  for  in  1898,  after  the  close  of 
the  war  with  the  United  States,  the  remains  of  the 
great  Colon  were  once  more  removed,  this  time  back 
again  to  Spain,  which  they  had  left  to  cross  the  ocean 
in  1536.  Cuba,  as  San  Domingo  before  it,  had  ceased 
to  be  Spanish  soil,  and  the  ashes  of  the  great  dis- 
coverer were  restored  to  that  land  which  had  per- 
mitted him  to  die  in  penury  and  neglect. 

Passing  from  church  to  theatre,  the  most  important 
edifice  of  this  kind  is  the  Tacon  Theatre,  erected  in 
1838,  and  with  seats  for  an  audience  of  about  3000 
persons.     It  is  situated  on  the  corner  of  the  street  San 


72  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Rafael  and  the  Prado  or  Paseo  Isabel,  opposite  El 
Louvre,  a  fashionable  cafe,  and  while  not  very  im- 
posing on  the  exterior  is  handsome  within.  It  has 
five  tiers  of  boxes,  their  fronts  decorated  with  gilt 
lattice  work  of  light  and  graceful  design.  The  audi- 
torium is  of  horseshoe  shape,  the  parquette,  with  seats 
for  600  persons,  being  reserved  for  gentlemen.  The 
ornaments  are  in  excellent  taste,  the  house  well 
lighted,  and  the  whole  effect  brilliant  when  the  house 
is  crowded  with  gayly  dressed  ladies  and  gentlemen 
in  evening  dress. 

Other  places  of  amusement  include  the  Payret 
Theatre,  seating  2500,  the  Alibasu  Theatre,  the  Circo, 
and  the  Casino,  the  last  combining  amusement  wdth 
instruction.  This  edifice,  which  is  one  of  the  institu- 
tions of  the  capital,  has  facilities  for  dramatic  enter- 
tainments,— mainly  amateur,  for  charitable  purposes, 
— and  has  a  handsomely  decorated  ball-room,  where 
masked  balls  are  occasionally  given,  and,  during  the 
carnival  season,  nightly  masquerade  balls  are  held  un- 
surpassed for  gayety  and  picturesqueness  of  costume 
and  effect.  The  Casino  also  supports  a  free  school 
for  the  teaching  of  French  and  English  and  drawing, 
ing. 

Of  other  buildings  of  interest  may  be  named  the 
churches  of  San  Juan  de  Dios,  built  in  1573,  San  Agos- 
tino,  in  1608,  Santa  Catalina,  in  1658,  and  San  Felipe, 
which  has  the  distinction  of  possessing  a  large  library. 
The  Belen  Church,  occupying  nearly  a  whole  city 
block,  is  perhaps  the  most  attractive  of  them  all. 
There  are  many  monasteries  and  nunneries  and  a 
considerable  number  of  charitable  institutions.  These 
include  several  hospitals,  of  which  the  most  important 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  73 

is  the  Real  Casa  de  Beneficencia,  dating  back  to  1790, 
and  containing  an  orphan  asylum,  a  lunatic  asylum, 
a  poor-house,  and  an  infirmary.  To  these  may  be 
added  the  custom-house,  the  exchange,  the  univer- 
sity, and  other  public  edifices  and  educational  institu- 
tions. 

In  addition  to  the  library  of  the  Church  of  San 
Felipe  is  that  of  the  Royal  Economical  Society  of 
Havana,  which  possesses  a  large  number  of  books, 
many  of  them  rare,  particularly  those  relating  to  Cuba. 
The  rooms  are  open  from  twelve  to  three  each  day, 
though  the  books,  principally  in  Spanish,  do  not  pre- 
sent indications  of  being  much  used. 

The  Alameda  de  Paula  skirts  the  bay  shore  on  the 
city  side,  and  is  a  favorite  evening  resort  for  prome- 
naders,  the  ocean  breeze  giving  it  a  refreshing  cool- 
ness. It  is  faced  by  many  handsome  buildings,  while 
the  water-side  is  bordered  with  a  continuous  sea-wall. 

The  city  is  well  provided  with  statues  and  fountains, 
one  of  the  most  attractive  of  the  latter  being  the  beau- 
tiful Fountain  of  India,  on  the  Prado,  opposite  the 
Campo  de  Marte.  This  work  of  art,  carved  out  of 
Carrara  marble,  is  surrounded  with  royal  palms,  and 
adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  avenue.  The  city 
possesses  numerous  squares,  usually  ornamented  with 
palm  trees,  with  a  few  orange,  lime,  and  banana  trees, 
and  the  shady  Indian  laurel. 

From  the  Campo  de  Marte  extends  the  Calzada  de 
la  Reina  (Queen's  Street),  which  farther  on  becomes 
the  Paseo  de  Tacon,  already  mentioned,  the  two  being, 
of  an  afternoon,  the  liveliest  part  of  the  city,  as  they 
form  the  favorite  pleasure  drive  and  promenade.  The 
Calzada  de  la  Infanta  leads  into  a  long  street,  called 


74  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

El  Cerro,  which  extends  to  the  village  of  that  name, 
three  miles  out,  and  is  by  many  considered  the  hand- 
somest street  of  the  city.  It  is  lined  with  attractive 
modern  residences,  and  large  old  villas  in  the  midst  of 
beautiful  gardens,  each  house  in  its  way  like  a  fort, 
with  its  single  story,  its  unglazed  and  strongly  barred 
windows,  and  its  vast  and  massive  doorways,  studded 
with  brass  knobs.  The  principal  entrance  opens  into 
a  large,  cool  hall,  paved  with  tiles  of  marble,  while 
broad  archways  lead  to  the  rooms  adjoining.  Within 
the  houses  doors  are  lacking,  curtains  replacing  them 
in  the  interior  arrangement.  The  ceilings  are  very 
high,  and  the  free  circulation  of  air  from  the  court- 
yard render  these  halls  the  most  agreeable  part  of  the 
house  for  dining  purposes.  The  patio  or  court-yard 
is  laid  out  with  walks,  flowers,  fountains,  and  fra- 
grant bushes,  while  birds  of  song  or  of  brilliant  plu- 
mage hang  there  in  ornamental  cages.  All  the  rooms 
open  into  it,  and  an  upper  gallery  runs  round  it  when 
the  house  has  a  second  story. 

On  the  right  of  the  Cerro  lies  a  charming  place 
formerly  known  as  the  Bishop's  Garden,  one  of  whose 
chief  attractions  is  a  superb  avenue  of  mango  trees. 
Here  are  also  some  noble  examples  of  the  cactus, 
which  often  attains  a  vast  size  in  Cuban  soil.  There 
is  an  alley  of  palms,  over  two  hundred  years  in  age, 
and  grand  in  dimensions,  and  many  evidences  of 
former  artistic  adornment,  now  in  a  state  of  neglect 
and  decay.  A  small  stream  of  mountain  origin  flows 
through  the  grounds,  and  affords  opportunities  for 
irrigation,  cascades,  fountains,  pools,  and  swimming 
basins. 

Havana  is  amply  provided  with  facilities  for  sea- 


CENTRES   OF    POPULATION.  75 

bathing,  in  which  the  sharks  that  haunt  the  outer 
waters  are  set  at  defiance.  The  ocean  shore  is  com- 
posed of  coral  rock,  within  which,  at  great  expense, 
basins  have  been  hollowed  out,  the  opening  to  the 
sea  being  too  narrow  to  permit  the  entrance  of  any 
of  its  dangerous  habitants.  The  basins  are  from 
twelve  to  eighteen  feet  square  and  eight  feet  deep, 
the  water  within  them  averaging  about  five  feet  deep. 
The  constant  in-  and  out-flow  of  the  sea  keeps  the 
water  perfectly  pure  and  crystal  clear,  except  in  case 
of  a  storm,  when  the  sea  breaks  over  the  top  in  a  tur- 
moil of  boiling  foam,  giving  the  benefit  of  surf  bathing. 

Of  the  hotels  of  Havana  may  be  named  the  Hotel 
Telegrafo,  situated  opposite  the  Campo  de  Marte ;  the 
San  Carlos,  a  family  hotel  near  the  wharves ;  the  Hotel 
Pasaje,  on  the  Prado;  the  Hotel  Europa,  in  the  Plaza 
de  San  Francisco;  and  the  Hotels  Central  and  Ingla- 
terra,  in  the  noisy  quarter  opposite  the  Parque  Cen- 
tral. All  these  houses  have  restaurants,  and  are  run 
both  on  the  American  and  the  European  plan.  Res- 
taurants and  cafes,  indeed,  exist  abundantly  through- 
out Havana,  whose  people  live  largely  out  of  doors 
and  get  their  meals  abroad. 

Of  the  markets,  the  most  convenient  is  the  Mercado 
de  Cristina,  in  the  Plaza  Vieja,  occupying  a  hollow 
square,  whose  sides  are  composed  of  ranges  of  stores 
of  all  kinds,  faced  by  an  arcade.  Here  may  be  seen 
immense  heaps  of  vegetables  and  smaller  piles  of  all 
the  luscious  fruits  of  Cuba,  presided  over  by  the 
swarthy  country  people  or  by  dusky  negroes  in  highly 
varied  costume.  Berries  are  lacking.  There  seem  to 
be  none  raised  on  the  island,  the  great  heat,  as  is  said, 
burning  them  up.     Nor  is  there  to  be  seen  the  va- 


76  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

riety  of  delicious  summer  vegetables  of  the  north, — 
onions,  cabbages,  and  sweet  potatoes  being  the  prin- 
cipal productions  of  this  kind.  The  plantain,  in  com- 
mon with  rice  and  tasajo  (jerked  beef,  or  fish),  con- 
stitutes the  principal  food  of  the  poor. 

The  fish  market  is  on  the  other  side  of  the  town,  in 
a  large  stone  building  near  the  bay.  The  varieties  of 
edible  fish  are  very  numerous,  more  than  one  hundred, 
it  is  said,  the  best  being  the  pargo  and  the  raba-rubia. 
These  are  scarce  except  during  the  prevalence  of  the 
winter  north  winds,  when  they  appear  in  numbers  and 
are  sold  at  a  low  price.  Among  other  fish  exposed  for 
sale  is  the  shark,  offered  whole  or  in  sections;  the 
spoiler  of  the  seas  being  thus  made  food  for  man. 

Havana  is  fortunate  in  its  water-supply,  a  sufficient 
store  of  excellent  drinking  water  being  brought  into 
the  city  by  means  of  a  fine  aqueduct.  The  water  comes 
from  the  pure  and  extensive  springs  of  Yento,  about 
nine  miles  distant,  and  is  conducted  through  the  city 
to  the  fountains  with  which  Havana  abounds.  There 
is  also  an  old  aqueduct,  known  as  the  Zanja,  built  as 
early  as  1597,  and  drawing  its  supply  from  the  river 
Almandares,  an  impure  source.  The  city  has  few  wells 
and  cisterns,  and  nearly  all  the  water  us,ed  is  pure. 
Ice,  made  by  ice-machines,  is  supplied  in  sufficient 
quantity  to  be  sold  at  a  low  price,  there  being  three 
ice  factories  in  the  city.  In  the  interior  of  the  island, 
where  this  cooling  article  is  not  to  be  had,  porous 
jars,  placed  where  the  breeze  favors  evaporation  from 
their  surface,  are  employed,  and  serve  admirably  to 
cool  the  water  to  an  agreeable  temperature  for 
drinking. 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  77 

2«LATANZAS. 

Fifty-four  miles  east  of  Havana,  at  the  head  of  a 
magnificent  bay,  lies  Matanzas,  a  city  of  considerable 
commercial  importance,  and  the  capital  of  the  prov- 
ince of  the  same  name.  The  bay,  while  large,  lacks 
depth,  and  is  not  suitable  for  vessels  of  much  draught. 
It  receives  the  waters  of  the  rivers  San  Juan  and 
Yumurri,  between  and  beyond  which  the  city  extends. 
It  was  settled  in  1693  by  a  colony  from  the  Canary 
Islands,  and  has  to-day  a  population  estimated  at 
50,000. 

Picturesque  and  verdant  hills  surround  the  bay  in 
the  form  of  an  amphitheatre,  to  whose  ascending  slopes 
the  city  extends,  while  the  surrounding  country  is 
one  of  the  most  fertile  and  productive  sections  of 
Cuba.  Built  later,  and  under  better  supervision,  than 
Havana,  this  city  has  escaped  the  evil  of  narrow  ave> 
nues,  its  streets  being  wide;  while  its  superior  drainage 
and  cleanliness  give  it  a  better  record  for  healthful- 
ness  than  that  enjoyed  by  the  capital.  The  climate  is 
claimed  to  be  specially  favorable  to  those  afflicted  with 
throat  and  lung  diseases,  also  to  sufiferers  from  rheu- 
matism and  neuralgia,  and  many  invalids  of  this  char- 
acter seek  it  for  relief. 

The  most  prominent  building  visible  on  approach- 
ing Matanzas  from  the  water-side  is  the  custom-house, 
a  large  one-storied  stone  building,  built  a  century  ago. 
On  the  high  lands  in  the  rear  are  visible  the  country- 
seats  of  the  well-to-do  inhabitants,  who  from  this  out- 
look enjoy  a  delightfully  picturesque  view  of  the  city 
and  its  wide-spreading  and  hill-clasped  bay.  Tower- 
ing above  the  city  is  the  Monte  de  Pan,  or  Bread 


78  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Mountain,  a  lofty  background  whose  far-ofif  summit 
serves  as  a  welcome  landmark  to  southward-bound 
vessels. 

The  city  itself  has  no  special  features  calling  for 
mention,  though  it  is  rather  attractive  in  general  ap- 
pearance. Its  chief  public  square,  the  Plaza  de 
Armas,  is  quite  pretty  with  its  walks,  shrubbery,  and 
flowers,  and  is  surrounded  by  handsome  stores  and 
dwellings,  club-houses,  and  the  ofBcial  residence  and 
offices.  The  principal  church  is  a  large,  antique  build- 
ing, with  nothing  particular  to  recommend  it;  and 
there  is  a  new  and  spacious  theatre  and  the  inevitable 
bull-ring  and  cock-pits.  The  city  is  well  provided 
with  railways,  running  to  Havana,  Cienfuegos,  Sagua, 
and  Santa  Clara.  These  Cuban  roads,  American  in 
their  equipment  and  often  in  their  engineers,  are  fairly 
well  conducted  and  make  reasonably  good  time. 

Beyond  the  San  Juan  lies  the  Pueblo  Nuevo  (new 
city),  flanked  by  some  handsome  country-seats;  and 
beyond  the  Yumurri  is  a  section  of  the  city  known 
as  Versalles.  Here,  on  the  edge  of  the  bay,  is  the 
beautiful  Paseo  of  A^ersalles,  the  favorite  evening 
drive,  and  on  the  hills  adjoining  stand  the  military 
hospital  and  the  barracks  of  Santa  Isabel. 

IMatanzas  possesses  two  famous  points  of  attraction, 
the  valley  of  the  Yumurri  and  the  cave  of  Bellemar. 
There  is  nowhere  a  lovelier  view  than  the  former, 
which  is  made  up  of  a  broad,  circular  level  area,  some 
five  or  six  miles  in  diameter,  enclosed  on  all  sides  by 
steep  slopes  rising  to  the  height  of  five  or  six  hundred 
feet.  Through  the  centre  of  this  wdnds  the  beautiful 
Yumurri,  which  reaches  the  bay  through  an  exquisite 
canon  about  four  miles  long.     Seen  from  the  cinnbre, 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  79 

or  mountain  height  near  Matanzas,  this  peaceful  and 
verdant  valley,  with  its  palm  groups  and  plantations, 
its  groves  and  dwellings,  and  with  the  silvery  stream 
and  its  tributaries  winding  through  it  like  glowing 
threads,  presents  one  of  the  most  charming  visions  of 
all  the  tropic  world. 

Matanzas  has  in  its  vicinity  other  beautiful  views, 
among  the  most  striking  of  which  is  the  valley  of  the 
Magdalen,  as  seen  from  the  Hill  of  Paradise.  Here 
for  some  fifteen  miles  between  hazy  mountains  ex- 
tends a  verdant  country,  with  green  elevations,  grace- 
ful groves,  and  the  buildings  of  many  sugar  estates, 
while  in  the  far  distance  lie  the  city  and  bay  of  Ma- 
tanzas. 

The  cave  of  Bellemar,  opened  accidentally,  not 
many  years  ago,  by  some  quarrymen,  who  fancied 
they  had  broken  through  the  earth's  crust,  reaches  a 
depth  of  several  hundred  feet  beneath  the  surface,  and 
has  many  beautiful  stalactitic  effects.  Its  length,  so 
far  opened,  is  about  three  miles.  Of  its  views  may  be 
mentioned  the  Gothic  Temple,  smaller  but  much  more 
beautiful  than  the  similar  chamber  in  the  Mammoth 
Cave,  and  the  Fountain  of  Snow,  a  splendid  eflfect  of 
pure  white  stalactites  whose  charm  it  would  be  hard 
to  surpass.  It  has,  besides  its  Cloak  of  the  Virgin,  its 
Altars,  its  Guardian  Spirits,  its  Mantle  of  Columbus, 
and  such  like  indispensable  requisites  of  Cuban  caves, 
many  of  them,  unfortunately,  the  worse  for  the  smoke 
from  the  torches  of  the  guides. 

Of  the  hotel  accommodations  of  Matanzas,  the 
Hotel  Louvre  bears  the  best  record  for  cleanhness  and 
general  attractiveness,  combined  with  high  prices  for 
inferior  fare,  which  one  must  expect  everywhere  in 


8o  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Cuba.  The  rooms  are  small  and  the  partitions  be- 
tween them  do  not  reach  to  the  ceiling,  so  that  privacy 
is  sadly  lacking, — but  this  also  is  a  desideratum  not 
highly  considered  in  Cuba. 

If  one  desires  to  visit  a  Cuban  watering-place,  the 
Saratoga  of  the  island,  a  two-hours'  railroad  trip  to- 
wards the  interior  will  take  him  to  the  village  of  IMa- 
druga.  celebrated  for  its  mineral  springs,  which  are 
accredited  with  wonderful  curative  properties.  The 
village  lies  in  a  beautiful  and  healthful  rolling  country, 
and  is  a  fashionable  place  of  resort  in  the  late  spring 
and  summer.  The  waters  of  the  baths  are  impreg- 
nated with  sulphur,  and  with  some  iron,  magnesia, 
and  potassa,  and  are  claimed  to  be  sovereign  in  their 
eflfect  on  rheumatism,  scrofula,  paralysis,  dyspepsia, 
and  certain  other  ills. 

CARDENAS. 

Thirty  miles  east  of  Matanzas  is  Cardenas,  built 
almost  directly  upon  the  sea,  though  a  long  neck  of 
land  to  the  northwest  forms  a  bay-like  enclosure  and 
afifords  a  fair  degree  of  protection  to  the  shipping  at 
the  wharves.  It  is  the  youngest  town  of  any  note  in 
Cuba,  dating  from  1828,  and  has  a  population  esti- 
mated at  about  21,000,  its  prosperity  being  due  to  the 
great  fertility  of  the  back  country,  for  whose  products 
it  forms  the  shipping  point.  It  is  called  the  American 
city,  a  large  number  of  Americans  being  engaged  in 
business  here,  while  the  English  language  is  in  very 
common  use. 

The  city  is  flanked  on  both  sides  by  mangrove 
swamps;  it  standing  a  few  feet  above  their  level  and 
running  back  to  higher  ground.     It  is  substantially 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  8i 

built,  and  has  its  fair  share  of  handsome  buildings, 
while  in  its  centre  is  a  large  and  tasteful  plaza,  boast- 
ing a  fine  bronze  statue  of  Columbus.  The  streets 
are  about  forty  feet  wide,  but  are  unpaved  and  with- 
out sewerage.  Yet,  despite  this  and  its  swampy  situa- 
tion, Cardenas  is  a  healthy  city,  and  generally  enjoys 
the  advantage  of  cool  ocean  breezes. 

It  is  the  centre  of  a  large  sugar-producing  district, 
and  is  also  the  shipping  point  for  much  of  the  sugar 
of  Havana  province.  Its  bay,  which  is  twelve  miles 
long  by  eighteen  wide,  is  so  shallow  near  the  shore 
that  large  vessels  have  to  anchor  one  or  two  miles 
outward.  Craft  of  ten  or  twelve  feet  draught  can 
reach  the  wharves,  which  are  from  300  to  1000  feet 
in  length.  The  city  has  an  excellent  water-supply, 
though  many  of  the  people  still  use  the  unwholesome 
cistern  water, 

OTHER  NORTHERN  PORTS. 

Sagua  la  Grande,  in  the  north  of  Santa  Clara  prov- 
ince, and  160  miles  from  Havana,  is  a  town  of 
14,000  inhabitants,  situated  on  the  navigable  river  of 
the  same  name,  about  ten  miles  inland  from  its  sea- 
port, La  Isabella.  It  has  railway  connection  with 
Santa  Clara  and  Cienfuegos,  and  occasional  visits 
from  steamboats,  but  has  nothing  to  recommend  it 
to  strangers.  Some  thirty-five  miles  southeastward 
Ues  San  Juan  de  los  Remedios,  an  old  town,  founded 
in  1545  on  a  coast  islet  and  afterwards  removed  inland 
out  of  reach  of  the  buccaneers.  Its  port  is  Caibarien, 
about  five  miles  distant,  which  has  a  good  harbor.  Its 
population  is  nearly  7500.  It  is  surrounded  by  a  very 
fertile  district  and  possesses  a  good  trade  in  sugar. 

6 


82  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  city  of  Puerto  Principe  has  for  its  port  the  har- 
bor of  Nuevitas,  a  town  of  about  7000  population, 
situated  on  a  fine  bay,  to  which  Columbus  gave  the 
name  of  Puerto  Principe,  now  applied  to  the  prov- 
ince. The  entrance  to  this  bay  is  through  a  narrow 
channel,  four  or  five  miles  long,  which  opens  into 
a  double  bay,  one  section  being  called  Nuevitas  and 
the  other  Mayanabo,  and  each  receiving  the  waters 
of  two  rivers. 

The  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  possesses  several 
fine  harbors  on  its  north  coast,  its  most  important 
port  on  this  coast  being  Gibara,  the  outlet  of  the  in- 
land city  of  Holguin.  Here  is  a  capacious  bay,  though 
not  deep  enough  to  let  vessels  come  up  to  the  wharves, 
lighters  needing  to  be  employed.  Plantains,  grown 
abundantly  in  the  interior,  are  shipped  from  here  in 
large  quantities  to  Havana.  The  population  is  nearly 
5000. 

Almost  due  north  from  the  city  of  Santiago  opens 
the  spacious  bay  of  Nipe,  one  of  the  most  commodious 
on  the  island,  and  the  scene  of  one  of  the  latest  naval 
engagements  during  the  recent  war.  Its  commercial 
advantages  have  not  yet  been  utilized.  North  of  it  lies 
the  harbor  of  Banes,  an  important  fruit-shipping  point, 
particularly  for  bananas,  more  than  1,000,000  bunches 
being  shipped  in  some  recent  years.  Pine-apples  are 
also  largely  grown,  32,000  being  exported  in  1894. 

Still  proceeding  eastward,  we  reach  the  ancient 
town  of  Baracoa,  the  oldest  on  the  island,  situated  not 
far  from  Cape  Maisi,  its  most  easterly  point.  This 
town,  seated  on  a  small,  land-locked  bay,  with  narrow 
entrance,  was  founded  in  15 12  by  Diego  Velasquez, 
who  made  it  the  capital  of  the  island  and  fixed  his 


CENTRES   OF    POPULATION.  83 

residence  there.  The  first  cathedral  of  Cuba,  built 
there  in  15 18,  was  subsequently  removed  to  Santiago. 
Baracoa  has  a  population  of  about  5000,  and  is  an 
active  shipping  point,  sending  out  large  cargoes  of 
pineapples,  bananas,  and  cocoa-nuts,  the  produce  of 
the  surrounding  country,  and  also  having  a  good  trade 
in  coffee.  Back  of  the  town  rises  an  abrupt  mountain 
range,  while  the  adjacent  country  is  highly  pictu- 
resque, being  noted  for  its  caverns,  cascades,  and  cu- 
rious natural  formations.  The  caves  are  celebrated 
for  the  beauty  of  their  stalactites,  and  also  for  the  fossil 
remains  found  in  them.  In  addition  to  the  bones  of 
the  lower  animals,  they  contain  Indian  remains.  The 
town  is  unhealthy,  malarial  fevers  being  very  preva- 
lent;  but  the  interior  country  is  very  healthful. 

West  of  Havana,  on  the  coast  of  Pinar  del  Rio 
province,  are  several  good  harbors,  including  those 
of  Mariel,  at  the  northern  end  of  Weyler's  famous 
trocha,  Cabanas,  and  Bahia  Honda,  the  last  named 
possessing  one  of  the  finest  harbors  of  Cuba.  The 
surrounding  country  is  very  rich  in  its  sugar-cane 
production. 

SANTIAGO  DE  CUBA. 

First  in  importance  among  the  southern  ports  of 
the  island  is  the  city  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  capital  of 
the  province  of  the  same  name,  and  at  one  time  capital 
of  the  whole  island.  This  city,  whose  name  is  com- 
monly abbreviated  by  the  inhabitants  to  "  Cuba"  or 
"  Santiago,"  was  founded  in  15 14  by  Diego  Velasquez, 
and  is  now  credited  with  a  population  of  about  60,000. 
It  is  situated  on  a  fine  bay,  famous  as  the  place  of 
refuge  of  Cervera's  Spanish  squadron,  while  the  city 
has  similarly  gained  celebrity  as  the  centre  of  military 


84  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

and  naval  operations  in  Cuba  during  the  war  of  1898, 
and  as  the  first  port  of  the  island  rescued  from  Spanish 
rule. 

Santiago  is  backed  by  a  mountain  country,  and  is 
built  on  an  ascending  hill-side,  reaching  at  its  highest 
point  a  level  of  160  feet  above  the  sea,  so  that  from 
any  point  are  presented  superb  views  of  the  expanding 
bay  and  of  the  neighboring  mountains.  The  city  is 
regularly  laid  out,  the  streets  crossing  at  right  angles; 
though  the  steepness  of  those  which  run  back  from 
the  harbor,  gullied  as  they  are  by  the  frequent  rains, 
interferes  seriously  with  the  comfort  of  the  pedestrian. 
The  sidewalks  are  but  ten  to  fifteen  inches  in  width, 
and  the  avenues,  once  paved  with  cobble-stones,  have 
long  been  in  an  almost  impassable  condition,  while  the 
stream  of  foul  water  which  flowed  down  them  served 
the  purpose  of  drainage,  but  not  of  cleanliness  and 
immunity  from  unpleasant  odors.  It  is  not  to  be  won- 
dered at  that  this  city  has  been  the  central  seat  of  yel- 
low fever,  that  fatal  child  of  filth  and  neglect. 

In  the  centre  of  the  city  is  the  Plaza  de  la  Reina 
(Square  of  the  Queen),  a  breathing-spot  with  much 
beauty  of  vegetation.  On  its  eastern  side  stands  the 
cathedral,  a  handsome  stone  structure,  whose  elevated 
position  makes  it  a  very  prominent  object  from  the 
bay.  It  is  the  largest  church  in  Cuba,  as  befits  its 
dignity  as  the  seat  of  an  archbishop's  see,  but  has  not 
been  spared  by  earthquakes,  which  have  injured  it  so 
that  it  needed  to  be  practically  rebuilt  in  the  early 
part  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Externally  it  resem- 
bles somewhat  the  cathedral  of  Havana.  Internally, 
the  main  aisle,  leading  to  the  grand  altar  and  choir, 
is  imposing  from  the  height  of  its  arches  and  massive- 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  85 

ness  of  its  pillars,  and  there  are  some  richly  decorated 
chapels;  but  the  effect,  on  the  whole,  is  not  very 
striking.  The  elaborate  ceremonials  which  occasion- 
ally take  place  here  attract  people  from  all  sections  of 
the  island. 

Santiago  possesses  several  spacious  two-story  club- 
houses of  some  pretentiousness,  and  a  multitude  of 
gaudy  drinking-saloons,  which  in  the  evening,  with 
their  open  fronts  and  their  abundant  display  of  look- 
ing-glasses, bottles  of  colored  liquor,  and  general 
glitter,  have  a  dazzling  efTect.  One  would  think  that 
the  Cubans  spent  their  time  in  drinking,  yet  it  is  rare 
to  see  one  of  them  the  worse  for  liquor.  In  fact,  they 
indulge  sparingly  in  intoxicants,  preferring  some  of 
their  numerous  "  soft  drinks."  The  houses  in  the 
older  portion  of  the  city  are  vari-colored,  one-storied 
stone  buildings,  of  the  Moorish  style  of  architecture. 
In  the  suburbs  are  many  cheap  wooden  structures. 

The  sidewalks  are  so  narrow  that  one  involun- 
tarily takes  to  the  street,  a  not  very  agreeable  alterna- 
tive in  the  past,  when  these  narrow  avenues  were  well 
carpeted  with  dirt  and  filth,  and  served  as  open  sewers 
for  the  conveyance  of  malodorous  waters.  Santiago, 
indeed,  has  long  been  famous  for  lack  of  cleanliness, 
though  under  the  vigorous  control  of  General  Wood, 
the  American  military  governor,  it  has  had  a  thor- 
ough cleansing  for  the  first  time  in  its  history,  a 
mountain  mass  of  dirt  being  carted  away.  The  streets 
are  now  kept  thoroughly  clean,  all  garbage  is  burned 
daily,  and  cleanliness  of  dwellings  and  shops  is 
rigidly  enforced,  whitewash,  fresh  paint,  and  disin- 
fectants being  freely  used.  Whether  this  state  of 
affairs  will  be  maintained  by  the  Cubans  if  left  to  them- 


86  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

selves  it  is  impossible  to  say,  but  they  have  certainly 
been  treated  to  a  most  useful  object  lesson. 

The  city  is  at  once  very  hot  and  extremely  un- 
healthy. The  surrounding  mountain  country  shuts 
it  closely  in  and  keeps  ofif  the  refreshing  sea  breezes, 
while  the  unhealthfulness  is  due  to  the  disease-breed- 
ing filth  which  has  accumulated  for  centuries  in  the 
bottom  of  the  bay,  this  being  so  land-locked  that  little 
of  the  sewage  is  carried  out  to  sea.  The  rapid  up- 
ward slope  of  the  city  renders  drainage  easy,  but  how 
to  carry  the  sewage  beyond  the  bay  is  likely  to  be  a 
serious  and  costly  matter. 

The  bay  itself  is  a  particularly  fine  one,  about  five 
miles  long  and  three  miles  in  greatest  width.  The 
water  shoals  to  ten  or  fifteen  feet  at  the  wharves,  so 
that  lighterage  is  necessary  for  large  vessels.  The 
largest  steamers,  however, -can  lie  beside  the  magnifi- 
cent iron  pier  of  the  Juragua  Mining  Company.  The 
island  of  Cayo  Smith,  near  the  harbor  entrance,  serves 
as  a  watering-place  for  the  best  families  of  the  city, 
and  contains  many  beautiful  villas. 

There  are  many  attractive  drives  in  the  vicinity  of 
this  city,  one  of  the  most  fashionable  being  that  of 
the  Paseo  de  Concha.  An  agreeable  and  not  very 
long  drive,  over  ground  that  has  recently  become 
famous,  is  that  to  Morro  Castle,  at  the  entrance  to 
the  harbor.  Morro  is  a  familiar  word  in  Cuba  and 
Porto  Rico,  meaning  no  more  than  a  fortification  on 
the  summit  of  a  rounded  or  semicircular  hill.  The 
Morro  of  Santiago  is  a  full  century  older  than  the 
more  famous  one  of  Havana,  and  is  a  highly  pictu- 
resque structure,  being  a  yellow,  Moorish-looking 
stronghold,    with    crumbling,    honeycombed    battle- 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  87 

ments,  odd  little  flanking  turrets,  and  grated  windows. 
Beneath  it,  at  the  water's  edge,  the  sea  has  worn  a 
deep  cave  in  the  cliffs,  whose  broad  entrance  lies  be- 
neath a  perfect  natural  arch. 

The  Morro  passed  through  a  baptism  of  fire  from 
Admiral  Sampson's  fleet  during  the  siege  of  Santiago, 
but  with  far  less  injurious  effect  than  was  anticipated. 
Antique  and  adapted  to  a  former  age  as  it  is,  it  bore 
remarkably  well  the  fire  of  the  great  12-  and  13-inch 
rifled  guns,  and  emerged  not  seriously  the  worse  for 
its  severe  bombardments. 

Other  localities  which  have  recently  become  famous 
about  Santiago  are  the  hill  of  San  Juan  and  the  vil- 
lage of  El  Caney,  both  made  memorable  by  the  in- 
trepid valor  of  American  troops.  In  the  mountain 
country  back  of  the  city  are  the  rich  copper  and  iron 
mines,  already  spoken  of,  whose  yield,  freed  from  the 
annoyances  and  crippling  exactions  of  Spanish  con- 
trol, can  scarcely  fail  to  become  great  and  valuable. 

Eastward  from  Santiago  lies  the  magnificent  bay  of 
Guantanamo,  within  whose  confines  the  American 
marines  gained  their  first  footing  on  Cuban  soil,  and 
whose  waters  served  as  a  coaling  harbor  for  the 
blockading  fleet. 

The  city  itself,  while  small,  is  charmingly  situated, 
the  surrounding  mountain  country  yielding  the 
choicest  coffee  of  Cuba,  while  sugar  is  grown  in  the 
valleys,  and  the  coast  country  is  noted  for  its  beautiful 
groves  of  lemon  and  lime  trees. 

Westward,  in  the  deep  gulf  made  by  the  promontory 
of  Cape  Cruz,  is  the  port  of  Manzanillo,  a  town  of 
more  than  9000  population,  with  a  large  trade  in  sugar, 
agricultural  and  forest  products,  and  so  situated  as  to 


88  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

make  it  one  of  the  most  unhealthful  towns  on  the 
island.  Farther  west,  and  due  south  from  Puerto 
Principe,  is  the  port  of  Santa  Cruz  del  Sur,  a  town  of 
about  looo  population,  dealing  in  fine  timber,  cattle, 
wax,  honey,  and  other  products. 

TRINIDAD. 

The  province  of  Santa  Clara  possesses  two  southern 
ports  of  importance,  Trinidad  and  Cienfuegos.  The 
former,  lying  due  south  of  the  provincial  capital,  is 
situated  some  miles  inland  from  the  bay,  with  a  moun- 
tain background  and  in  one  of  the  healthiest  districts 
of  the  island.  The  village  of  Casilda,  on  the  side  of 
the  shallow  bay,  serves  as  its  port,  the  city  being  built 
inland  as  a  partial  protection  from  the  buccaneers  of 
past  centuries. 

Trinidad,  with  a  population  of  about  18,000,  is  one 
of  the  oldest  towns  on  the  island,  dating  back  to  15 14. 
It  was  formerly  the  centre  of  the  cofifee  trade  of  Cuba, 
but  has  declined  with  the  falling  off  of  the  coffee  cul- 
ture, while  the  more  modern  Cienfuegos  has  taken 
much  of  its  trade.  The  city  lies  some  six  miles  back 
from  the  coast,  on  the  side  of  Vijia  (watch-tower) 
Mountain,  its  elevation  above  sea-level  being  from 
200  to  nearly  400  feet. 

The  streets  of  Trinidad,  as  a  result  of  its  antiquity, 
are  nearly  all  narrow  and  winding,  those  on  the  edge 
of  the  town  being  unpaved.  Some  of  them  present 
a  peculiar  appearance,  with  their  rough  tiled  houses 
and  the  odd  titles  given  the  stores.  In  the  better  streets 
the  dwellings  are  usually  large  and  comfortable,  a 
number  of  them  being  quite  handsome.  Of  the  pleas- 
ure grounds  of  the  city  much  the  most  attractive  is 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  89 

the  Plaza  de  Carillo,  situated  centrally  and  beautifully 
laid  out,  its  walks  being  shaded  with  vines  and  shrub- 
bery and  made  charming  by  a  profusion  of  flowers, 
while  a  vine-clad  arbor  of  graceful  design  occupies  the 
centre  of  the  square. 

But  the  principal  charm  of  Trinidad  is  the  beauti- 
ful scenery  to  be  enjoyed  from  various  high  points  in 
its  vicinity.  The  easiest  to  be  had,  and  one  of  the  most 
charming,  is  the  outlook  from  the  Vijia,  whose  summit 
an  active  pedestrian  can  easily  reach  by  walking.  In 
all  directions,  inland  and  seaward,  the  views  are  beau- 
tiful, particularly  when  seen  at  the  rising  and  the  set- 
ting of  the  sun.  The  people  are  very  hospitable,  and 
the  town,  in  the  winter  season,  is  gay  and  lively.  It 
is  very  healthful,  being  swept  by  both  the  sea  and 
the  mountain  breezes.  The  harbor,  while  spacious,  is 
shallow,  and  not  well  protected  from  the  open  sea. 
Its  trade  is  largely  in  sugar,  there  being  numerous 
estates  in  the  vicinity. 

CIENFUEGOS. 

The  magnificent  bay  of  Cienfuegos,  or  Jagua,  to 
give  it  its  proper  name,  like  several  others  of  the  best- 
known  bays  of  Cuba,  has  a  narrow  and  tortuous  en- 
trance, bounded  by  green  hills,  the  interior  being  in- 
visible from  the  seaboard.  The  harbor  is  deep  and 
spacious,  admitting  of  vessels  of  twelve  to  fourteen 
feet  draught  being  moored  at  its  wharves,  an  advan- 
tage over  several  of  the  Cuban  ports,  while  its  surface 
is  amply  sheltered  from  the  winds  by  the  high  sur- 
rounding hills.  At  the  anchorage  for  large  vessels 
there  are  twenty-seven  feet  of  water.  Las  Casas  called 
it  the  most  magnificent  harbor  of  the  world,  with  its 


90  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

six  square  leagues  of  water  area.     Three  rivers  empty 
into  it,  each  navigable  for  some  distance  inland,  an   i 
advantage  in  view  of  the  usually  abominable  roads  of 
Cuba.  j 

Cienfuegos,  like  Cardenas,  is  called  an  American   i 
city,  a  large  proportion  of  its  27,000  people  speaking 
English,  while  the  great  bulk  of  its  trade  is  with  the 
United  States.     The  town  is  comparatively  modern, 
a  fact  to  its  advantage,  the  streets  being  of  fair  width 
and  kept  in  a  reasonably  clean  condition.     It  lies  on   1 
a  level  plot  of  ground  and  is  a  busy  and  active  place,   ' 
enjoying  an  excellent  commerce. 

As  elsewhere  in  Cuba,  the  houses  are  one-storied, 
flat-roofed,  and  parti-colored,  built  in  the  Moorish 
fashion  around  an  open  patio,  or  court-yard,  which  is 
usually  gay  with  flowering  plants.  The  city  is  situ- 
ated in  a  region  admirably  adapted  to  sugar,  some  of 
the  largest  and  finest  cane-producing  estates  in  the 
world  being  in  its  vicinity.  The  result  of  this  and 
its  shipping  advantages  has  been  a  rapid  growth  and 
a  large  commerce,  the  export  of  sugar  in  a  prosperous 
year  being  over  $9,000,000.  Considerable  tobacco  is 
also  exported,  while  the  import  trade  is  considerable. 

The  prosperity  of  the  city  is  indicated  by  a  number 
of  handsome  buildings,  chief  among  which  is  the 
well  known  Terry  Theatre,  adjoining  which  is  the 
largest  and  finest  plaza  on  the  island.  This  is  adorned 
with  numerous  statues  and  with  many  ornamental 
plants.  Southeast  of  the  city  rise  the  San  Juan  Moun- 
tains, whose  picturesque  aspect  adds  much  to  the 
attractiveness  of  the  situation. 

Cienfuegos  has  railway  connection  with  Santa  Clara, 
about  forty  miles  to  the  northeast,  and  was  the  centre 


iS' : 


CENTP^-ES   OF   POPULATION.  91 

of  several  interesting  incidents  during  the  late  war, 
the  chief  of  which  was  its  brief  blockade  by  Commo- 
dore Schley  during  his  search  for  the  Spanish  fleet. 
Here,  as  at  Santiago,  the  depth  of  the  bay  and  its 
narrow,  hill-bordered  entrance,  prevented  his  seeing 
what  lay  within. 

There  is  only  one  other  coast  town  that  calls  for 
attention,  Batabano,  due  south  from  Havana,  and 
notable  as  occupying  the  original  site  of  that  city. 
It  is  little  more  than  a  village;  its  importance  lying 
in  its  position  as  the  terminus  of  the  south-bound  rail- 
way from  Havana  and  the  starting-point  of  a  number 
of  steamboat  lines  running  to  the  Isle  of  Pines,  and 
to  Cienfuegos,  Trinidad,  and  other  southern  ports. 

INLAND  CITIES. 

Of  the  inland  towns  of  note  in  Cuba  the  most  west- 
erly is  the  city  of  Pinar  del  Rio,  capital  of  the  province 
of  that  name,  and  seated  in  the  centre  of  the  famous 
tobacco  region  of  the  Vuelto  Abajo.  It  is  situated 
n8  miles  southwest  of  Havana  and  fifteen  miles  from 
the  southern  coast,  and  has  a  population  of  about 
8000.  The  city  stands  160  feet  above  sea-level,  on  the 
summit  of  a  hill  seventy  feet  high,  and  has  both  rail- 
way and  highway  connection  with  Havana.  It  is  the 
most  important  commercial  town  in  the  province,  its 
principal  business  being  the  handling  of  tobacco. 

Four  miles  distant  is  the  small  town  of  Consola- 
cion  del  Sur,  around  which  are  said  to  be  more  than 
800  plantations  of  the  finest  tobacco  of  Cuba.  San 
Cristobal  and  Artemesia,  towns  of  a  few  thousand 
population  each,  are  important  stations  on  the  rail- 
road which  traverses  the  province.     Candelaria,  six 


92  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

miles  from  San  Cristobal,  is  of  note  for  its  mineral 
springs  and  the  excellent  product  of  its  coffee  planta- 
tions. Another  railway  line  from  Havana  runs  to 
Guanajay,  twenty-six  miles  distant,  a  town  of  over 
5000  population,  prettily  situated  in  an  active  sugar- 
raising  district,  and  about  twelve  miles  from  the  sea. 

The  province  of  Havana  is  the  most  thickly  settled 
district  of  the  island,  its  towns  including,  in  addition 
to  those  mentioned,  Guara,  Giiines,  Bejucal,  Santiago 
de  los  Vegas,  and  San  Antonio  de  los  Bafios,  of  from 
5000  to  7000  population  each,  and  a  number  of  smaller 
size.  Of  the  inland  towns  of  Matanzas  province,  it 
will  suffice  to  name  Bemba  (or  Jovellanos),  Macagua, 
and  Colon,  the  latter  two  surrounded  by  great  sugar 
estates. 

The  city  of  Santa  Clara,  more  commonly  known  as 
Villa  Clara,  lies  central  to  the  province  of  the  same 
name,  and  is  connected  by  railway  with  Cienfuegos, 
Cardenas,  and  other  cities.  It  is  of  considerable  size, 
but  has  no  particular  pretensions  to  beauty.  Founded 
in  1689,  it  has  now  a  population  of  about  12,000,  and 
lies  in  the  midst  of  a  mineral  country,  yielding  gold, 
silver,  copper,  plumbago,  and  asphaltum.  There  are 
indications,  also,  of  natural  gas  near  the  city.  This 
place  has  a  reputation  for  the  wealth  of  its  people  and 
the  unusual  beauty  of  its  women.  Situated  about  200 
miles  east  of  Havana,  it  forms  the  present  termination 
in  that  direction  of  the  railway  system. 

Puerto  Principe  was  originally  located  at  the  site 
now  occupied  by  Nuevitas,  but  in  15 16  was  removed 
to  its  present  situation,  forty-five  miles  inland,  in 
order  to  escape  piratical  incursions.  The  modern 
Nuevitas  serves  as  its  port,  being  connected  with  it 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  93 

by  railway.  An  Indian  village  named  Camaguey  pre- 
viously occupied  the  site,  and  it  was  by  this  name  that 
the  district  and  city  were  formerly  known,  and  are 
still  frequently  spoken  of  by  the  Cubans. 

Santa  Maria  del  Puerto  Principe,  to  give  it  its  full 
name,  is  the  largest  inland  city  of  Cuba,  its  population 
being  over  40,000,  and  in  aspect  is  the  most  ancient 
and  quaint  on  the  island.  It  has  narrow,  winding 
streets,  many  of  them  unpaved  and  lacking  sidewalks. 
There  are  several  old  churches,  a  theatre,  government 
buildings,  and  other  public  edifices,  most  of  its  struct- 
ures being  ancient  in  architecture.  It  is  surrounded 
by  the  largest  grazing  district  in  Cuba,  and  owes  its 
importance  to  the  immense  herds  of  cattle  which  roam 
over  the  adjacent  plains.  There  is  also  much  valuable 
timber.  There  is  not  a  hotel  in  the  city,  but  the  people 
are  very  hospitable  to  strangers.  Twenty-five  miles 
to  the  north  is  the  Cubitas  Mountain  district,  the  head- 
quarters of  the  Cuban  insurrectionary  government. 
.  Of  the  remaining  inland  towns  it  will  suffice  to  name 
Bayamo,  in  the  province  of  Santiago  de  Cuba,  near 
which  Marshal  Campos  suffered  a  severe  repulse  at 
the  hands  of  Maceo,  the  Cuban  general;  and  Holguin, 
a  city  of  considerable  size  in  the  same  province,  con- 
nected by  rail  with  Gibara,  and  the  scene  of  the  last 
military  event  of  the  Cuban  insurrection.  It  was  be- 
sieged by  Garcia  with  a  large  army  and  vigorously  de- 
fended by  its  Spanish  garrison  after  the  surrender  of 
Santiago  to  the  American  forces. 

Bayamo  is  a  very  old  city,  founded  in  1551,  and  is 
substantially  built  in  the  older  Spanish  style.  It  has 
eleven  churches,  some  of  them  excellent  examples  of 
the  ecclesiastical  architecture  of  the  past   centuries. 


94  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  population  is  about  4000.  Holguin,  of  some 
5500  inhabitants,  Hes  fifteen  miles  south  of  Gibara,  on 
a  high  plain  and  in  a  healthful  situation.  Founded  in 
'1740,  it  has  the  narrow  and  unpaved  streets  of  the 
past,  generally  filthy  in  condition.  It  is  very  favorably 
situated  for  the  development  of  the  hard-wood  in- 
dustry. 

HEALTH  RESORTS. 

Batabano  is  the  point  of  departure  for  the  two  most 
celebrated  of  the  many  mineral  spring  localities  of 
Cuba,  those  of  San  Diego  and  Santa  Fe.  The  baths 
of  San  Diego,  reached  by  rail  from  Havana,  by  boat 
from  Batabano  to  Dayaniguas,  and  by  volante  from 
the  latter  place,  are  situated  in  the  Pinar  del  Rio  prov- 
ince, on  the  banks  of  the  river  Caiguanabo,  which 
from  this  point  takes  the  name  of  San  Diego.  Here  is 
a  small,  neatly-built  town,  with  numerous  hotels, 
which  are  crowded  during  the  season.  The  abundant 
waters  of  the  springs  are  conducted  into  a  number  of 
baths,  all  the  springs  containing  sulphuric  and  car- 
bonic acids,  sulphate  of  lime,  bicarbonate  of  magnesia, 
and  other  mineral  substances.  The  waters,  used  both 
externally  and  internally,  are  claimed  to  be  excellent 
for  several  complaints,  to  which  curative  powers  the 
pure  hillside  air  undoubtedly  adds.  Among  the  scenes 
in  the  vicinity  are  some  interesting  caves,  and  a  re- 
markable archway  excavated  by  the  river,  100  feet 
wide  and  sixty  high,  the  arch  divided  by  a  grand  pillar 
of  rock. 

Santa  Fe,  on  the  Isle  of  Pines,  gains  its  celebrity 
from  its  pure,  dry,  and  balmy  air,  healthful  with  the 
resinous  odors  of  the  pine  forests,  and  its  mineral 
springs,  which  are  impregnated  with  carbonate  and 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  95 

sulphate  of  lime,  chlorides  of  sodium  and  calcium, 
magnesia,  nitrate  of  lime,  and  other  minerals.  The 
waters  are  claimed  to  be  excellent  for  bronchial  and 
various  other  affections,  and  in  the  coming  era  of 
Cuba  this  locality  is  likely  to  become  a  favorite  place 
of  resort  for  invalids. 

Mention  has  been  made  of  the  springs  of  Madruga 
and  Santa  Rita,  and  we  need  but  speak  briefly  of  those 
of  San  Antonio  de  los  Banos,  a  small  but  pretty  town 
on  the  river  that  drains  the  celebrated  Lake  Ari- 
guanabo,  about  twenty-three  miles  from  Havana.  Its 
health-giving  baths  have  made  it  a  favorite  place  of 
summer  resort  from  Havana.  The  San  Vicente  min- 
eral springs,  also  of  note,  are  near  the  town  of  Vifiales, 
in  the  Pinar  del  Rio  province. 


VI.  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 

CITY  LIFE. 

One  of  the  first  things  to  strike  the  visitor  at  Ha- 
vana, on  his  arrival  in  that  city,  is  its  multipUcity  of 
bells,  and  the  furious  clanging  with  which,  every 
morning,  they  greet  the  break  of  day„  rudely  dispell- 
ing sleep  from  all  but  those  "to  the  manner  born." 
From  every  church-tower  they  peal  forth,  not  one  but 
many,  each  doing  its  utmost  in  noise-making,  until 
one  would  think  that  the  whole  town  was  in  flames 
and  this  the  tocsin  of  alarm.  Add  to  this  the  lusty 
crowing  of  the  game-cocks,  which  are  kept  in  multi- 
tudes for  gambling  purposes,  and  of  the  plebeian  cocks 
kept  by  most  families  as  lords  of  their  broods  of  fowls, 
and  it  becomes  easy  to  understand  the  hasty  flight  of 
the  deity  of  slumber. 

In  truth,  noise  is  native  to  Havana.  Its  streets  are 
paved  with  stone, — the  heat  banishes  asphaltum  as  a 
paving  material  and  the  dampness  would  soon  rot  out 
a  wood  pavement.  As  the  usual  coixlition  of  the 
streets  drives  most  of  the  people — all  the  ladies — to 
carriages,  the  rattle  of  wheels  over  the  stone  pave- 
ments is  incessant,  and  one's  ears  are  greeted  with  a 
constant  din.  The  two-wheeled  volante,  once  uni- 
versal, has  been  succeeded  by  the  four-wheeled  vic- 
toria, of  which  there  are  thousands  for  public  hire 
about  the  town,  carriages  and  horses  alike  often  the 
worse  for  wear;  but  prices  are  reasonable  and  the 
vehicles  largelv  patronized.  Street-cars  also  have 
96 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  97 

made  their  way  thither,  and  add  their  contingent  of 
noise. 

It  is  rare  for  a  lady  to  venture  abroad  except  in  a 
vehicle,  and  walking,  for  which  their  tiny  feet  seem 
ill  adapted,  has  become  almost  a  lost  art  with  the  fair 
Havanese.  In  dancing,  however,  they  show  surpris- 
ing powers  of  endurance,  and  can  severely  tax  the 
staying-powers  of  their  gentlemen  friends.  The 
Cuban  ladies  mature  early  and  fade  early.  Marriage 
is  common  at  ages  at  which  the  girls  of  the  North 
have  still  before  them  years  of  school  life,  and  their 
comeliness  dies  away  prematurely.  But  at  their  best 
the  ladies  of  Cuba  are  strikingly  graceful  in  movement, 
their  forms,  though  well-rounded,  sylph-like  in  light- 
ness, their  voices  low  and  sweet,  their  deep-black  eyes 
vivacious  and  sparkling,  their  whole  aspect  instinct 
with  charm.  At  home  they  dress  simply  in  delicate 
muslins  and  linens,  but  abroad  their  costume  is  apt  to 
set  those  with  a  developed  color  taste  wild  by  its  bold 
combinations  of  glaringly  inharmonious  hues,  while 
the  superabundant  use  of  paint  and  powder  is  of  no 
advantage  to  their  beauty. 

There  is  one  article  of  dress  without  which  a  Cuban 
lady  would  be  utterly  lost, — the  fan.  Accustomed  to 
the  use  of  this  indispensable  requisite  from  childhood, 
she  becomes  strikingly  graceful  and  "coquettish  in  it§ 
use.  This  pretty  and  costly  article,  formed  of  rich 
materials,  is  wonderfully  expressive  in  her  hands, — an 
instrument  of  flirtation  that  seems  fairly  to  speak  in 
its  adroit  pantomime,  and  with  which  almost  every 
desired  phase  of  feeling  may  be  expressed. 

Lacking  intellectual  pursuits,  these  ladies  fair  are 
apt  to  spend  the  day  in  listless  rocking  and  fanning, 

7 


98  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

varied  with  gossipy  chat  and  broken  by  a  mid-day 
siesta,  their  labors  being  hniited  to  a  httle  sewing  and 
embroidery.  After  five  o'clock,  life  on  the  Paseo  be- 
comes animated;  the  ladies,  gorgeously  attired  but 
bonnetless,  wearing  as  head-dress  only  the  dark  tresses 
supplied  by  nature,  driving  in  handsome  carriages; 
the  gentlemen  on  horseback  or  on  foot,  the  broad 
sidewalks  being  filled  with  w^ell-dressed  promenaders. 
Later  on  they  may  resort  to  the  Parque  Central  to 
enjoy  the  music  of  the  military  band,  and  chat  or  flirt 
with  their  admirers,  winding  up  the  evening,  perhaps, 
in  the  m^zy  circlings  of  the  dance  or  in  their  boxes  at 
the  theatre  or  opera. 

In  the  furnishing  of  the  houses  the  rocking-chair 
is  a  necessity  of  the  situation,  a  well-furnished  sitting- 
room  having  perhaps  a  dozen  of  these  cane-seated 
conveniences.  These,  ranged,  in  the  usual  custom,  in 
two  exact  lines  from  the  window  to  the  rear  of  the 
room,  with  a  woollen  mat  between  them  on  the  floor, 
present  an  idea  of  order  that  is  as  inartistic  as  it  may 
be  thought  convenient. 

The  broad,  projecting  window  of  Cuban  dwellings, 
reaching  from  floor  to  ceiling,  with  its  absence  of  glass 
and  its  cell-like  bars  of  iron,  reveals  the  interior  of  the 
dwellings  to  the  passers-by  in  a  way  that  in  colder 
climes  would  not  be  deemed  desirable,  and  in  some 
cases  not  decorous.  A  loose  lace  curtain  is  sometimes 
used,  but  rarely,  as  the  freest  circulation  of  air  is  de- 
manded; and  the  ladies  of  the  household  do  not  seem 
to  mind  being  observed  in  dishabille.  In  fact,  they 
come  fr«eely  to  the  windows  to  gaze  out  or  to  chat  with 
passing  acquaintances,  and  may  frequently  be  seen, 
like  voluntary  captives,  "  looking  through  the  bars." 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  99 

Inside  the  houses  doors  have  no  existence,  curtains 
dividing  room  from  room  and  from  corridor.  Where 
privacy  is  desired,  these,  usually  looped  back,  are 
dropped;  and  it  is  the  custom  to  speak  before  ven- 
turing to  pass  a  closed  curtain.  But  as  the  division 
walls  between  apartments,  in  private  houses  and  hotels 
alike,  often  reach  but  two-thirds  of  the  way  to  the 
ceiling,  actual  privacy  is  a  thing  out  of  the  question. 
The  need  of  a  free  circulation  of  air  overpowers  all 
other  requisites  in  a  Cuban  dwelling,  the  people  living 
practically  in  the  open  air,  and  doubtless  being  the 
better  in  health  for  so  doing. 

While  during  the  day  the  coolest  rooms  of  the  house 
are  sought  by  the  family  and  its  guests,  the  flat  roof 
being  left  to  the  laundress,  at  night  the  roof  is  the 
place  where  all  gather  to  enjoy  the  cool  breeze  from 
the  ocean.  At  this  hour  the  long  rows  of  level  house- 
tops, when  illumined  by  the  beams  of  the  moon,  are 
cheerful  and  attractive  with  their  happy  family  gather- 
ings, peals  of  gay  laughter  floating  across  from  house 
to  house,  songs,  or  the  sound  of  instruments  making 
the  air  musical,  and  from  afar  the  music  of  the  mili- 
tary band  now  and  then  swelling  into  audible  strains. 
There  the  people  often  sit  until  late  at  night,  smoking, 
chatting,  and  enjoying  the  balmy  coolness  of  the  mid- 
night air. 

Some  other  things  may  be  said  regarding  the  Cuban 
dwellings.  One  peculiarity,  to  a  Northerner,  is  that 
such  a  thing  as  a  chimney  is  unknown.  It  is  the  con- 
stant efifort  to  avoid,  not  to  invite,  heat,  and  for  this 
reason  even  wooden  floors  are  not  in  use,  the  floors 
being  laid  in  marble  or  tiles.  There  is  a  similar  ab- 
sence of  carpeting,  beyond  the  long  rug  which  parts 


loo  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  rows  of  chairs,  and  mattresses  are  rejected  for 
sleeping  purposes  in  favor  of  stretched  canvas  beds, 
with  upper  and  under  sheets.  But  an  indispensable 
requisite  of  sleeping-apartments  is  the  mosquito  net- 
ting, if  one  wishes  to  enjoy  his  slumber  in  comfort. 

While  the  Cuban  ladies  during  the  day  are  home- 
keepers,  the  men,  as  a  rule,  look  upon  their  dwellings 
only  as  sleeping,  not  as  living,  places.  The  average 
Cuban  rarely  takes  his  meals  at  home,  his  spare  hours 
being  given  to  his  club,  w^hile  cafes  and  restaurants 
flourish  under  his  constant  patronage.  As  a  result  of 
this  neglect  of  home  life,  the  domestic  virtues  are  at 
a  low  ebb  in  Cuba.  The  almost  utter  absence  of  books 
and  reading  matter,  the  lack  of  occupation  for  women 
of  the  higher  class,  the  neglect  of  their  homes  by  the 
men,  all  tend  to  such  a  result,  and  a  lowered  condi- 
tion of  morals  is  naturally  to  be  expected  under  such 
circumstances. 

Business,  of  course,  demands  a  period  of  attention; 
but  many  dispose  of  this  in  the  mornings,  and  spend 
the  remainder  of  the  day  in  festive  relaxation,  in  the 
cafes  or  in  worse  places,  yielding  to  the  enervating 
influence  of  the  climate  and  passing  their  time  in  lassi- 
tude and  luxurious  ease.  Love  of  music  is  universal, 
as  with  the  natives  of  warm  climates  generally;  and 
the  band  concerts  at  the  Plaza  de  Armas  or  the  Parque 
Central  attract  multitudes  of  appreciative  listeners,  the 
ladies  in  full  evening  dress,  in  their  carriages  or  on 
the  seats  of  the  square,  the  gentlemen  promenading 
and  chatting. 

At  night,  in  the  fashionable  drinking-saloons.  gather 
multitudes  of  the  lovers  of  sport  and  excitement, 
drawn  thither  by  the  blaze  of  light  reflected  by  a  pro- 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  loi 

fusion  of  mirrors,  the  noise  and  vivacity,  and  the 
gambling  that  is  to  be  seen  openly  and  everywhere, 
— games  of  dominoes,  chess,  checkers,  or  cards  going 
on  at  which  all  stake  their  money,  lookers-on  as  well 
as  players.  All  classes  congregate  there,  and  the 
gaming  continues  until  late  in  the  night,  while  drink- 
ing is  continual,  though  not  usually  of  strong  liquors. 
Of  course,  there  are  cafes  which  ladies  can  patronize, 
and  in  which  ices  and  sherbets  are  to  be  had  equal  to 
those  served  in  the  United  States.  The  ice-creams, 
indeed,  are  not  up  to  the  best  American  standard,  but 
the  sherbets,  flavored  with  the  luscious  native  fruits, 
are  delicious.  Ladies  accompanied  by  gentlemen  visit 
these  places  freely.  If  alone,  they  are  served  in  their 
carriages  at  the  door. 

Smoking  is  universal  in  Cuba,  all  classes,  from  the 
highest  to  the  lowest,  constantly  fumigating  them- 
selves with  tobacco,  and  ladies  indulging  in  cigarette 
smoking  almost  as  freely  as  the  men.  Everywhere 
and  on  all  occasions  the  people  of  all  classes  smoke, 
— between  the  courses  at  meals,  in  the  office,  the  street, 
the  cafe,  the  theatre,  at  feasts  and  at  funerals.  Gen- 
tlemen able  to  purchase  them  are  said  to  consume  the 
equivalent  of  a  dozen  cigars  each  day,  and  the  ladies 
sometimes  half  that  quantity,  though  of  late  years  the 
cigarette  has  largely  taken  the  place  of  the  cigar,  and 
is  used  to  an  extent  that  keeps  a  large  class  of  the 
population  busy  in  its  manufacture.  Snufif-taking  and 
chewing,  on  the  contrary,  are  very  rare,  smoke  being 
the  favorite  mode  of  disposing  of  the  weed. 

In  the  summer  season,  those  who  wish  to  escape  the 
mid-day  heats  may  make  excursions  to  a  number  of 
attractive  places  in  the  vicinity,  where  pure  and  fresh 


I02  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

air  can  be  breathed.  One  of  these  is  Maricanao,  a 
neat  and  pretty  village,  reached  by  a  short  railroad 
journey,  and  much  frequented  by  those  who  wish  to 
escape  from  the  city  heat  to  a  cooler  and  more  airy 
situation.  There  are  various  pleasant  walks,  rich 
with  tropical  vegetation;  while  the  mineral  springs 
found  here  furnish  another  attraction,  and  surf-bath- 
ing may  be  enjoyed  on  the  near-by  sea-shores. 
About  half-way  back  to  Havana  is  a  smaller  but  not 
less  pretty  village,  Puentes  Grandes,  also  a  place  of 
summer  resort.  At  Guanabacoa,  the  baths  of  Santa 
Rita,  of  which  we  have  already  spoken,  attract  num- 
bers of  visitors. 

Those  wealthy  enough  to  make  longer  and  more 
expensive  flittings  may  spend  the  hot  season  in  cool 
retreats  among  the  hills,  in  their  comfortable  country- 
houses,  or  may  seek  the  medicinal  waters  of  San 
Diego,  Santa  Fe,  or  some  of  the  various  other  mineral 
springs  of  Cuba,  w^hose  waters  are  used  for  both  drink- 
ing and  bathing. 

Havana  is  w^ell  provided  with  facilities  for  bathing, 
there  being  a  number  of  well-arranged  private  estab- 
lishments in  addition  to  the  sea-water  baths  excavated 
from  the  coral  rocks.  These  are  somewhat  fairly 
patronized  by  the  men  of  the  city,  though  neither  men 
nor  women  seem  overly  inclined  to  indulgence  in  the 
bath.  As  for  the  Cuban  women,  it  seems  to  be  a 
question  whether  they  ever  bathe  at  all.  Some  claim 
that  a  full  bath  with  a  woman  consists  in  moistening 
the  corner  of  a  tow'el  with  rum  and  rubbing  with  it 
hands,  face,  and  neck, — though  one  cannot  help  think- 
ing this  a  libel  as  applied  to  ladies  of  the  well-bred 
class.     But  it  is  certain  that  the  Cubans  do  not  prac- 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  103 

tise  the  personal  cleanliness  of  natives  of  many  other 
tropical  lands. 

One  thing  further  needs  to  be  said  here  of  Cuban 
society,  that  childhood  disappears  at  so  early  an  age 
that  it  can  be  but  half  enjoyed.  One  may  observe 
boys  and  girls  of  but  ten  or  twelve  years  of  age  dressed 
like  young  ladies  and  gentlemen;  walking  arm  and 
arm,  with  a  ludicrous  aping  of  the  fashions  of  their 
elders,  in  the  park  paths;  or  attending  balls,  their 
faces  painted  and  their  forms  bedizened  in  the  Cuban 
fashion;  though  childhood  is  apt  to  reassert  itself  by 
their  falling  asleep  in  odd  corners  during  the  height 
of  the  festivities.  Small  boys  with  high  hats  and 
evening  dress-suits,  and  little  girls  in  long  dresses 
with  low  necks,  look  like  foolish  masqueraders,  while 
these  children  are  versed  in  the  habits  of  those  three 
times  their  age,  and  are  familiar  with  much  that  seems 
foreign  to  childish  life.  Indeed,  at  twelve  the  women 
are  not  far  short  of  the  marriageable  age;  and  it  is 
common  to  find  sedate  mothers  of  families  at  twenty. 

Hospitality  is  a  trait  for  which  the  people  of  Cuba 
receive  much  credit,  and  fairly  so  to  some  extent, 
though  it  takes  on  strange  manifestations  that  mean 
nothing  but  the  language  of  compliment.  The  fashion 
is  one  imported  from  Spain.  When  one  enters  for  the 
first  time  a  Cuban  mansion,  the  host  and  hostess  are 
profuse  in  placing  all  their  possessions  at  his  service 
— without  an  idea  that  he  will  think  of  accepting  the 
offer.  Praise  an  article,  be  it  ring,  picture,  or  other 
article  of  value,  and  you  are  at  once  told  that  it  is 
yours — though  it  would  be  the  reverse  of  good  breed- 
ing for  you  to  attempt  to  take  the  giver  at  his  word. 
In  smaller  matters  hospitality  is  not  wanting,  though 


I04  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

one  may  soon  wear  out  his  welcome.  Flattery  is  a 
very  common  trait,  and  profuse  compliment  to  ladies 
is  so  freely  dealt  in  that  they  accept  it  as  a  matter 
of  course,  knowing  well  how  much  it  is  w^orth.  It 
need  hardly  be  said  that  this  extravagant  outward 
show  is  lip  service  only,  and  that  for  truly  generous 
treatment  ladies  must  seek  colder  climes. 

A  subject  which  calls  for  passing  attention  is  the 
remarkable  development  of  Freemasonry  in  Cuba, 
particularly  in  view  of  the  active  opposition  of  the 
Catholic  Church  to  the  Masonic  brotherhood.  In 
proportion  to  the  population  there  are  more  Masons 
in  Cuba  than  in  any  other  country  in  the  world.  This 
helps  to  show  the  slight  hold  which  the  Church  has 
upon  the  Cubans,  many  of  whom,  restricted  by  state 
enactment  to  the  tenets  of  one  religious  sect,  have 
sought  Freemasonry  as  an  acceptable  substitute.  The 
rites  of  Masonry  gratify  the  religious  instinct  inherent 
in  all  mankind,  sustaining  the  worship  of  the  Supreme 
Being  in  freedom  from  sectarian  trammels;  while  the 
aid  in  times  of  need  extended  by  the  society  to  its 
brotherhood  has  helped  largely  in  making  it  popular. 
It  has  been  bitterly  opposed  by  the  Church.  At  times 
attendance  on  a  Masonic  meeting  has  been  deemed 
a  crime  equal  to  that  of  high  treason.  Some  of  the 
captain-generals,  bSing  Masons  themselves,  have  sup- 
ported the  order;  others  have  bitterly  persecuted  it; 
but  it  has  survived  all  opposition,  and  is  a  living  and 
important  element  in  Cuban  society  to-day. 

FOOD  AND  BEVERAGES. 

Something  has  been  already  said  about  the  Cuban 
hotels.     These  we  cannot  fairly  speak  of  as  good,  bad, 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  105 

and  indifferent,  since  the  first  adjective  rarely  applies 
in  the  case  of  a  guest  accustomed  to  northern  hotel 
life.  Without  further  reference  to  their  general  ac- 
commodations, or  lack  of  accommodation,  we  shall 
confine  ourselves  here  to  some  remarks  about  what 
they  offer  to  satisfy  the  appetite. 

It  is  the  custom  in  Cuba,  on  rising,  to  break  the 
fast  with  a  cup  of  coffee  or  chocolate,  and  a  roll  or 
morsel  of  dry  toast, — "  Coffee  with  or  without  milk?" 
being  about  the  first  question  one  hears  after  being 
awakened  by  the  clanging  of  the  bells.  Fruit  is  also 
used  to  some  extent.  Cubans,  however,  prefer  to  re- 
serve the  fruit  to  begin  their  breakfast  with,  the  hours 
for  this  meal  ranging  from  nine  to  eleven. 

In  the  hotels  the  lower  floor  is  used  for  the  com- 
monalty and  for  business  purposes,  the  dining-room 
and  parlor  for  guests  being  on  the  second  floor,  the 
table  well  supplied  with  colored  glass,  silver,  and  other 
table-ware;  while  the  parlor  is  inviting  with  its  cool- 
looking  floor  of  marble,  its  flower-stand,  and  its  easy- 
going rocking-chairs,  in  which  one  may  nap  at  will. 

Eggs  in  some  of  the  many  ways  in  which  Cubans 
cook  them  form  the  opening  dish  at  breakfast,  stewed 
tomatoes  being  poured  over  them  when  poached,  and 
boiled  rice  served  with  them.  One  may  have  his 
choice  of  fish,  there  being  many  kinds.  These  are 
best  fried  in  olive  oil,  served  dry  and  well  browned. 
Shrimps  are  abundant,  and  form  a  wholesome  and 
favorite  dish,  eaten  with  salt  or  as  a  salad.  The  meats 
follow,  being  generally,  for  breakfast,  stewed  or  broiled 
liver,  mutton  chops,  veal,  or  beefsteak, — the  last  form- 
ing usually  rather  poor  provender  in  Cuba.  One  or 
two  hashes  are  served,  and  for  vegetables  fried  po- 


io6  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

tatoes,  and  fried  or  roasted  plantains  or  bananas.  The 
sweet  potato  is  of  excellent  quality.  As  a  relish,  water- 
cress, an  abundant  product  of  the  island,  is  served. 
Fruits  are  usually  supplied  in  profusion,  and,  as  a  dish 
native  to  the  island,  guava  jelly  with  cheese,  a  favorite 
Cuban  relish.  The  inevitable  cigarette  and  cafe  solo, 
or  coffee  without  milk,  conclude  the  meal. 

As  for  butter,  the  least  said  about  it  the  better.  The 
firm,  sweet,  fragrant  butter  of  the  north  is  alien  to 
the  Cuban  climate;  instead  you  will  receive  a  soft, 
yellowish  material  in  a  wide-mouthed  bottle,  of  which 
the  sight  is  likely  to  quite  satisfy  the  appetite. 

Dinner  is  taken  in  the  evening,  after  the  day's  work 
is  over  and  the  torrid  heat  is  modified.  It  is  suffi- 
ciently elaborate,  but  presents  nothing  peculiar,  a 
considerable  variety  of  soups,  fish,  and  meats  being 
served,  with  the  limited  number  of  vegetables  that 
Cuba  can  boast, — sweet  potatoes,  tomatoes,  beans, 
cabbage,  and  lettuce.  Rice,  indeed,  is  the  most  com- 
mon vegetable.  Then  comes  a  custard  or  canned 
fruit, — pastry  being  rarely  served, — followed  by  coffee 
and  the  ubiquitous  cigar.  A  peculiarity  is  that  the 
entire  meal  is  served  at  once,  with  the  exception  of  the 
dessert, — this  alike  at  home  and  in  hotels, — the  custom 
of  serving  in  courses  not  having  been  introduced. 

A  considerable  variety  of  drinks  serve  the  Cubans 
as  cooling  or  refreshing  beverages,  first  and  most 
common  of  all  being  the  Vino  Catalan,  a  wine  sold 
very  cheaply,  and  found  on  every  table,  whether  of 
rich  or  poor.  At  the  cafe  it  largely  takes  the  place 
of  water.  It  is  a  very  strong  wine,  of  dark  claret 
color,  and  is  generally  diluted.  Ale  is  as  common  a 
beverage,  of  excellent  quality,  and  found  everywhere. 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  107 

Coffee  is  one  of  the  most  common  of  drinks,  with 
milk  on  rising,  without  milk  after  eating.  The 
national  drink  of  the  island  is  the  naranjada,  or 
orangeade,  a  favorite  and  very  agreeable  beverage. 
Limonada,  or  lemonade,  is  also  much  used,  though 
usually  made  from  limes.  The  Cuban  chocolate  can- 
not be  surpassed.  Made  of  the  consistency  of  thick 
gruel,  and  served  in  delicate  little  cups,  its  nutritious 
quality  renders  it  an  excellent  thing  to  take  when  a 
long  ride  is  contemplated. 

The  Cubans  are  fond  of  drinking,  and  drinking- 
saloons  and  bar-rooms  are  everywhere  in  evidence, 
where  strong  liquors  are  dispensed,  gin  in  particular. 
This  is  sold  at  a  very  low  price,  and  seems  to  be  drunk 
freely  by  the  common  people;  yet  the  rare  appearance 
of  a  drunken  man  goes  to  indicate  that  the  Cubans  are 
a  very  sober  people. 

They  have  numerous  non-intoxicating  drinks,  of 
which  the  most  common  and  popular  is  made  of  white 
sugar  and  water,  with  the  yelk  of  an  egg.  Other 
popular  beverages  are  orchata,  a  milk-white  drink 
made  of  almond  juice  and  sugar;  agrass,  a  slightly 
acid  drink  made  from  the  juice  of  unripe  grapes; 
ccbada,  or  barley-water,  and  various  others.  What 
are  known  as  panaJcs  are  made  of  the  white  of  eggs 
and  sugar.  Two  or  three  of  these,  placed  in  a  glass 
of  water  and  allowed  to  dissolve,  with  a  few  drops  of 
lime-juice,  make  a  cooling  and  delicious  drink.  A 
summer  beverage  is  made  by  adding  a  little  gin  to 
cocoa-nut  water,  and  somewhat  stronger  drinks  by 
mixing  absinthe  with  water  or  with  aniseed  decoc- 
tion. 


io8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

STREET  SCENES. 

For  the  principal  retail  business  establishments  of 
Havana  we  must  seek  certain  streets  of  the  old  town, 
Ricla,  Obispo,  and  O'Reilly  Streets,  running  to  the 
bay,  and  Mercaderes  Street,  crossing  these  at  right 
angles.  Obispo  Street  is  one  of  the  liveliest  in  the 
city,  its  rows  of  well-filled  stores  extending  from  the 
bay  to  the  old  walls;  while  the  bustle  of  carriages 
and  of  people  on  foot  keep  it  in  a  state  of  incessant 
activity.  The  shops  are  usually  quite  open  in  front, 
and  with  their  queer  names,  the  narrowness  of  the 
streets,  and  the  colored  awnings  above,  form  a  pecu- 
liar and  curious  spectacle  to  foreign  eyes. 

There  are  many  fine  stores  for  the  sale  of  dry-goods, 
millinery,  china,  glassware,  jewelry,  and  other  articles 
of  taste  and  luxury.  Silver-ware  and  jewelry  stores 
are  particularly  numerous,  and  present  a  glittering 
appearance  with  their  display  of  well-filled  glass  cases 
and  of  rich  wares  on  the  shelves.  In  shopping,  ladies 
rarely  leave  their  carriages, — goods  being  brought  out 
to  them  at  the  sidewalk,  while  dress-goods  are  usu- 
ally sent  to  the  homes  of  customers  to  be  examined 
and  selected  from.  The  custom  is  to  ask  a  price  be- 
yond that  expected  to  be  paid,  which  is  usually  reduced 
about  one-half  before  the  bargain  is  struck. 

One  peculiarity  of  Havana  is  its  mingling  of  high 
and  low  life, — the  pretentious  mansion  often  standing 
at  close  elbows  with  the  humble  dwelling  of  the  ar- 
tisan, or  even  the  negro  hut.  In  the  business  quarter 
a  handsome  private  house  may  stand  beside  a  shabby- 
looking  warehouse;  while  people  of  the  best  class  do 
not  hesitate  to  live  in  or  over  stores  or  warehouses, 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  109 

a  well-appointed  dwelling  often  occupying  the  second 
floor  of  a  stirring  place  of  business,  entrance  being 
made,  perhaps,  through  the  litter  of  a  grocer's  shop 
or  other  undesirable  surroundings. 

Within  the  places  of  business  life  often  goes  on  in 
a  wholesomely  patriarchal  fashion.  The  passer-by 
may  see  the  merchant  and  his  clerks  seated  at  their 
breakfast  in  full  view  of  the  street,  the  table  not  in- 
frequently spread  in  the  store  itself.  About  noon 
business  suffers  a  general  interregnum;  the  hour  of 
the  siesta  has  come,  and  sleep  for  an  interval  seals 
the  eyes  of  the  late  active  multitude,  merchants  and 
laborers,  men  and  women,  yielding  to  the  gentle  in- 
fluence of  the  god  of  slumber. 

Aside  from  the  stores,  the  streets  themselves  are  full 
of  busy  and  curious  scenes,  peripatetic  venders  taking 
possession  of  the  contracted  avenues,  and  making  the 
air  echo  with  their  cries.  Here  are  the  fruit-venders, 
their  horses  provided  with  panniers  laden  deeply  with 
oranges  and  other  native  fruits,  whose  virtues  they 
vociferously  proclaim.  After  them  may  come  a 
poultry-dealer,  mounted  on  a  donkey  between  two 
baskets  filled  with  live  chickens,  which  thrust  their 
helpless  heads  through  the  net-work  covering  and 
plaintively  announce  their  presence.  Here  comes  a 
duke  seller,  basket  on  head  or  arm  and  waiter  of 
sweetmeats  in  hand,  mainly  the  preserved  fruits  of 
the  country.  Next  may  appear  a  Chinaman,  a  coolie 
freed  from  service  and  now  seeking  by  the  sale  of 
crockery  to  gain  money  enough  to  carry  him  home 
again.  Instead  of  shouting  his  wares,  he  signifies  his 
presence  by  a  sharp,  rattling  sound,  made  by  dex- 
terously manipulating  a  handful  of  plates. 


no  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Most  singular  of  these  venders  is  the  milkman,  who, 
instead  of  carting  his  milk  in  cans,  usually  drives  the 
cows  themselves  from  door  to  door,  milking  for  each 
customer  the  quantity  demanded,  and  then  passing 
on  to  the  next.  At  times  a  calf  follows,  muzzled  to 
prevent  its  interference,  while  its  presence  induces  the 
cow  to  yield  her  milk  more  freely.  Of  course  the 
needs  of  the  calf  occasionally  have  to  be  attended  to. 
This  is  a  custom  imported  from  Southern  Spain  and 
Italy,  and  one  which  has  the  advantage  of  assuring  a 
fresh,  pure  article. 

Occasionally  one  of  the  narrow  streets  is  filled 
almost  from  side  to  side  by  a  deeply-laden  donkey, 
whose  head  and  legs  alone  appear  under  its  wide- 
spreading  load  of  green  fodder,  brought  to  the  city 
for  horse-feed,  and  constituting,  with  corn,  the  only 
provender  of  Havana  horses.  Oats  or  other  grains 
are  not  raised  on  the  island,  and  the  stalks  and  soft 
ears  of  unripe  maize  and  the  tender  tops  of  the  sugar- 
cane are  alone  fed  to  the  equine  family. 

To  return  to  the  subject  of  Chinese  coolies,  pre- 
viously mentioned,  it  may  be  said  that  as  laborers  they 
have  long  since  proved  failures  as  plantation  hands, 
and  none  have  been  brought  to  Cuba  for  several  years. 
They  were  unsuited  to  the  climate  and  the  service, 
and  during  their  eight-year  term  of  contract  the  mor- 
tality among  them  is  said  to  have  reached  as  high  as 
sixty-seven  per  cent.  Of  those  that  survived,  many 
of  them  became  lame,  half-starved,  ragged  mendi- 
cants, numbers  of  them  being  blind.  Those  able  to 
work  are  engaged  in  cigar-making,  keep  small  stores 
or  fruit  stands,  or  otherwise  seek  by  honest  industry 
to  save  enough  to  return  to  their  native  land.     There 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  in 

are  no  laundrymen  among  them,  as  in  the  United 
States,  the  women  of  color  quite  absorbing  this  oc- 
cupation. 

Aside  from  the  coolies,  beggars  are  abundant,  Ha- 
vana having  its  small  army  of  them;  while  the  same 
may  be  said  of  all  the  cities  that  have  grown  up  under 
the  influence  of  Spain.  These  gentry  have  their  har- 
vest on  Saturdays.  It  is  the  custom  for  shops  and 
families  to  supply  themselves  with  a  quantity  of  small 
rolls  of  bread  baked  for  the  purpose,  one  being  usu- 
ally given  to  every  mendicant  who  applies  on  that 
day.  Carrying  a  large  canvas  bag  for  their  gratuities, 
they  usually  obtain  enough,  eked  out  with  other  gifts 
of  food,  to  keep  them  alive  during  the  week. 

Among  the  habitants  of  the  street,  the  negro,  in 
every  shade  of  complexion  from  deep  black  to  dusky 
white,  is  always  and  everywhere  to  be  seen.  The  free 
negroes  have  long  been  disposed  to  seek  the  cities  and 
large  towns,  where  they  form  a  healthy  and  vigorous 
part  of  the  population, — often  an  idle  and  vicious  part. 
They  act  as  porters,  stevedores,  and  light  laborers  in 
various  pursuits,  the  negro  women  doing  all  the  wash- 
ing and  ironing,  and  spending  a  fair  percentage  of 
their  gains  in  the  cheap  jewelry  and  gaudy  attire  in 
which  they  love  to  flaunt.  Attire,  however,  is  never 
wasted  on  their  progeny,  the  negro  children  of  both 
sexes  being  left  in  a  state  of  complete  nudity  until 
they  are  nine  or  ten  years  of  age.  In  the  country  the 
same  practice  prevails  in  regard  to  white  children, 
while  in  the  hot  season  laborers  generally  wear  just 
the  modicum  of  clothing  that  decency  demands. 

Sunday  is  by  no  means  a  day  of  rest  and  worship 
in   Cuba.      Ordinary  occupations   go  on,   while  the 


112  OUR  ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

churches  are  so  thinly  attended  that  the  services  seem 
performed  almost  to  the  empty  air.  Out-doors  all 
the  ordinary  sports  and  amusements  are  intensified. 
The  day  opens  with  a  combined  ringing  of  bells,  noise 
of  trumpets,  and  roll  of  drums,  accentuated  by  the 
firing  of  cannon  from  the  forts.  It  is  the  day  set  aside 
for  the  military  review,  the  bull-fight,  and  the  masked 
ball.  The  stores  are  open,  street  venders  are  busy 
as  usual,  open-air  performances  of  all  kinds  are  to  be 
seen,  from  the  Punch  and  Judy  show  to  athletic  ex- 
hibitions and  gambling  devices  of  various  kinds. 
Everything  seems  in  full  activity  except  religious  ob- 
servances, which  are  almost  lost  in  the  general  atten- 
tion to  secular  pursuits.  Churches  are  not  lacking; 
in  fact,  they  are  somewhat  over  numerous;  but  their 
visitors  are  mainly  children  and  negro  w^omen,  white 
women  being  rarely  seen,  while  to  Cuban  men  in  gen- 
eral Sunday  is  but  a  day  of  revelry.  Only  on  festive 
occasions  are  the  churches  thronged, 

THE  GAMBLING  PROPENSITY. 

The  Cubans  are  born  gamblers.  In  the  clubs,  the 
cafes,  all  places  of  relaxation,  games  of  chance  are  in 
constant  activity,  and  betting  is  the  universal  custom. 
The  government,  instead  of  seeking  to  check  this  pro- 
pensity, has  taken  advantage  of  it  and  done  its  utmost 
to  encourage  it.  There  has  long  been  a  government 
lottery  at  Havana,  with  semi-monthly  drawings ;  while 
the  selling  of  lottery  tickets,  usually  in  fractional  parts, 
is  one  of  tliQ  recognized  and  active  industries.  These 
are  openly  hawked  in  all  places  of  public  resort,  and 
the  demand  seems  equal  to  the  supply,  since  almost 
every  one  invests  in  them,  rich  and  poor,  white  and 


MANNERS   AND  CUSTOMS.  113 

black  alike.  It  is  customary  for  mercantile  houses  to 
invest  a  certain  sum  monthly  in  these  drawings,  with 
the  forlorn  hope  that  some  time  the  great  prize  may 
be  drawn.  The  story  is  told  that  some  years  ago  a 
number  of  slaves  on  a  plantation  clubbed  together  to 
buy  a  ticket,  which  drew  a  prize  of  $40,000.  They 
bought  their  freedom,  sixteen  of  them  in  all.  Of 
these,  two  returned  to  Africa,  four  joined  the  insur- 
gents in  1870,  and  the  remainder  soon  killed  them- 
selves with  dissipation.  It  is  difficult  to  find  any  one 
in  Cuba  who  is  the  better  ofif  for  his  prizes  from  the 
lottery,  though  for  years  it  has  netted  the  government 
more  than  $1,000,000  annually. 

It  seemed  a  severe  example  of  tyranny  to  the  good 
people  of  Santiago  when,  in  1898,  General  Wood,  the 
American  military  governor,  ordered  that  this  open 
gambling  should  cease.  The  people  grumbled,  but 
obeyed;  only,  perhaps,  to  make  up  for  the  depriva- 
tion in  secret.  Once  the  land  is  their  own  there  will 
undoubtedly  be  open  doors  to  the  gambling  fraternity 
again,  for  the  practice  is  ingrained  in  the  Cuban  con- 
stitution. 

Of  the  gaming  amusements  of  Cuban  cities  the 
cock-pit  is  one  of  the  most  frequented,  the  love  of 
cock-fighting  being  as  fully  developed  in  the  native 
Cuban  as  that  of  gambling.  The  pit  is  a  circular 
enclosure,  always  crowded  with  eager  observers  and 
gamesters,  and  daily  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
money  changes  ownership  in  this  cruel  amusement. 
The  birds  are  of  a  native  breed,  said  to  be  superior  to 
the  English  game-cock  in  pluck  and  endurance. 

Cruel  as  this  sport  is,  it  falls  below  that  of  the  bull- 
fight, another  favorite  Cuban  amusement,  exhibitions 


114  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

being  given  at  Havana  every  Sunday  afternoon.  The 
arena,  situated  in  the  Regla  suburb  of  the  city,  has 
seats  for  some  10,000  persons,  surrounding  a  space  of 
about  an  acre  in  extent,  in  which  the  sanguinary  con- 
tests take  place.  These  it  is  not  our  purpose  to  de- 
scribe. It  will  sufhce  to  say  that  they  serve  as  occa- 
sions to  exercise  the  universal  passion  for  betting, 
and  that  money  is  lost  and  won  freely  on  the  per- 
formances of  favorite  bulls  and  matadores. 

Holy  week  is  the  occasion  in  which  religious  ob- 
servance gains  special  control  in  Havana, — though  the 
season  of  serious  devotion  is  followed  by  an  utter  wild- 
ness  of  merry-making.  The  seeming  devoutness  of 
the  Cubans  during  this  week,  from  Palm  Sunday  on- 
ward, would  go  far  to  convince  any  one  then  landing 
in  Havana  that  he  was  in  a  country  of  earnest  wor- 
shippers. Solemnity  prevails.  On  Sunday  the  cathe- 
dral is  thronged,  each  person  seeking  to  obtain  a 
branch  of  holy  palm  from  the  priests.  On  Holy 
Thursday,  as  midday  arrives,  the  clanging  bells  of  the 
churches  suddenly  cease  to  ring,  and  almost  in  a  min- 
ute every  vehicle  disappears  from  the  streets.  The 
garrison,  with  reversed  arms,  marches  silently  through 
the  principal  avenues.  The  flags  on  forts  and  ship- 
ping are  lowered  to  half-mast,  and  the  churches 
draped  in  mourning.  On  Friday  an  effigy  of  the 
Saviour  is  solemnly  carried  through  the  streets,  all 
who  follow  uncovering  their  heads,  while  devout 
women  frequently  kneel  in  the  street  as  it  passes. 

On  Saturday,  at  ten  in  the  morning,  a  merry  peal 
suddenly  sounds  from  the  cathedral  bells;  the  other 
churches  follow;  solemnity  suddenly  gives  way  to 
gayety,  vehicles  once  more  crowd  the  streets,  holiday 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  115 

flags  wave  in  the  breeze,  the  cannon  roar  from  every 
fort,  and  madness  seems  to  take  possession  of  the 
populace. 

Money  is  now  spent  with  unwonted  freedom,  and 
all  places  of  public  entertainment  do  a  thriving  busi- 
ness,— the  people  having  saved  up  for  a  season  of  free 
spending  in  carnival  week.  The  public  masquerade 
balls  attract  multitudes  of  all  classes.  Chief  among 
these  is  that  held  on  Sunday  night  at  the  Tacon  Thea- 
tre, with  which  the  merry-making  closes.  Here  the 
parquette  is  floored  over  and  the  entire  lower  floor 
converted  into  a  grand  ball-room.  The  galleries  and 
boxes  are  thronged  with  spectators.  Two  military 
bands  alternate  in  playing  all  night  long.  Shortly  after 
midnight  an  emblematic  dance  is  performed  by  a 
trained  party  of  men,  women,  and  boys,  all  masked 
and  in  costume.  Near  morning  the  afifair  ends  in  a 
lively  frolic.  There  is  suspended  at  a  distance  above 
the  floor  a  large  paper  globe,  which  blindfolded  volun- 
teers, armed  with  sticks,  walk  towards  and  try  to  hit. 
Their  failures  are  greeted  with  shouts  of  laughter, 
which  are  kept  up  until  some  one  hits  the  bag  fairly, 
when  down  come  its  contents  of  bonbons,  toys,  and 
trinkets  amid  a  general  shout  of  applause  and  a  wild 
scramble  for  the  prizes.  Meanwhile  the  streets  are 
thronged  with  maskers  and  mummers  and  the  wildest 
license  of  merriment  prevails.  On  every  Sunday  after- 
noon during  the  carnival  and  Lenten  periods  the 
Prado  is  filled  with  a  solid  line  of  carriages,  occupied 
by  maskers  in  fancy  costumes,  and  the  fun  of  pelting 
everybody  in  sight  with  flowers,  paper  rolls,  and  small 
bags  of  flour  goes  actively  on. 


ii6  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

RURAL  LIFE. 

The  markets  of  Havana  and  the  other  large  cities 
of  Cuba  introduce  us  to  a  phase  of  hfe  not  native  to 
city  streets,  that  of  the  Montcro,  or  countryman,  hun- 
dreds of  whom  enter  the  city  in  the  early  morning  to 
dispose  of  the  produce  of  their  farms  or  gardens,  long 
lines  of  mules  or  horses,  their  panniers  well  laden  with 
food  stuffs,  serving  as  means  of  carriage.  They  bring 
with  them  sweet  potatoes,  onions,  and  cabbages, — the 
principal  vegetables  sold  in  Cuban  markets, — fruits  in 
considerable  variety,  and  maloja,  or  horse  fodder,  an 
inferior  kind  of  corn  that  grows  with  such  lack  of 
labor  as  to  suit  the  laziness  of  many  of  the  small  truck 
farmers,  and  which  is  not  allowed  to  ripen,  but  is  cut 
green  for  fodder. 

Let  us  follow  these  swarthy-skinned  market-men  to 
their  homes  and  observe  them  in  their  native  atmos- 
phere. 

The  Montero  is  none  too  fond  of  labor.  He  may 
plough  a  little, — his  plough  perhaps  the  crooked  stick 
of  immemorial  times, — and  do  some  little  work  in  his 
fields;  but  he  is  apt  to  hire  a  negro  to  do  the  most  of 
this  labor,  and  confine  his  share  of  the  work  to  gather- 
ing the  produce  and  taking  it  to  market.  Cultivation 
is  an  easy  process;  the  fertility  of  the  soil  can  be  safely 
trusted  to;  little  more  is  demanded  than  to  thrust  the 
seed  into  the  ground  and  leave  the  growing  of  the 
crop  to  unassisted  nature. 

In  truth,  the  fertility  of  the  soil  of  the  Cuban  low- 
lands is  something  marvellous.  While  the  mountains 
are  mainly  composed  of  coral  rock,  the  soil  of  the 
plains  and  valleys  seems  largely  made  up  of  fossil 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  117 

matter  of  oceanic  origin,  and  is  extremely  rich  in  the 
vital  elements  of  lime  and  phosphate, — so  inexhaust- 
ibly rich,  indeed,  that  fertilizers  are  rarely  used  except 
for  tobacco.  On  some  of  the  old  sugar  plantations 
the  land  has  borne  the  same  crop  for  a  hundred  years 
without  fertilization. 

Provided  by  nature  with  such  a  soil  as  this,  the 
Montero  does  little  to  improve  it,  satisfied  to  get 
through  life  with  the  least  labor  possible.  The  cs- 
tancia,  or  market-produce  farm,  varying  from  a  dozen 
to  over  a  hundred  acres  in  size,  is  used  largely  for 
growing  maloja,  for  raising  poultry,  and  for  pasturing 
cattle, — chickens,  eggs,  milk,  and  cheese  being  pro- 
duced for  city  consumption.  Only  a  small  part  of 
the  farm  is  devoted  to  garden  stufif,  which  cannot  be 
grown  successfully  without  skill  and  attention,  and 
another  section  is  devoted  to  melons,  plantains,  and 
sweet  potatoes,  maloja  usually  occupying  more  than 
half  the  farm. 

As  a  result,  though  the  land  is  capable  of  producing 
the  greatest  variety  and  profusion  of  food  stuffs,  the 
city  markets  are  none  too  well  supplied,  and  much 
food  is  imported  that  might  be  abundantly  produced 
on  the  island.  No  grain  is  raised  except  Indian  corn, 
and  this  mainly  to  be  cut  green  for  fodder.  The  soil 
is  not  suited  for  cereals;  and  it  is  said  that  there  is 
not  a  flour-mill  on  the  island,  the  United  States  sup- 
plying Cuba  with  its  flour.  In  many  of  the  estancias 
the  business  of  cultivating  the  soil  is  abandoned  for 
that  of  burning  the  coral  rock  of  the  island  into  lime, 
only  enough  corn  being  raised  to  feed  the  draught 
oxen  used  to  transport  the  lime  to  market. 

On  the  larger  estancias  fruits  are  grown  in  consider- 


ii8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

able  variety,  the  orange,  the  lemon,  the  mango,  vari- 
ous kinds  of  melons,  etc.,  it  only  being  necessary 
in  this  culture  to  plant  the  seed  and  pluck  the  fruit. 
Nature  has  made  the  island  a  garden,  and  with  careful 
and  intelligent  cultivation  it  could  be  made  to  yield 
a  superabundance  of  fruits  and  vegetables,  but  as 
managed  barely  enough  is  grown  to  prevent  scarcity 
in  the  neighboring  cities. 

"  The  rural  population  of  the  island,"  says  a  Cuban 
authority,  "  has  rusticity,  but  not  the  boasted  sim- 
plicity of  the  European  peasant.  Our  countryman  is 
astute  though  frank,  boastful  though  brave,  and  super- 
stitious if  not  religious.  His  ruling  passions  are  gam- 
bling (particularly  at  cock-fights,  of  which  he  is  very 
fond)  and  coffee,  which  he  drinks  at  all  hours;  his 
favorite  food  pork  and  the  plantain,  usually  roasted." 

When  in  ordinary  dress  he  wears  a  pair  of  loose 
pantaloons,  with  a  leather  girdle  at  the  waist,  a  shirt 
of  fancy  colors,  his  bare  feet  thrust  into  slippers,  a 
handkerchief  on  his  head  or  around  his  neck,  and  a 
broad-brimmed  palm-leaf  hat.  A  coat  is  rarely  worn, 
and  the  shirt  is  oftener  outside  than  inside  the  panta- 
loons. 

The  Montero  is  a  born  horseman,  and  never  stirs 
from  home  except  upon  the  back  of  his  favorite  steed. 
He  is  accustomed  from  childhood  to"  the  saddle,  and 
there  are  no  better  riders  anywhere.  The  Cuban 
horse  is  small  and  delicate  of  limb,  but  can  carry  a 
heavy  weight,  and  has  great  powers  of  endurance.  It 
is  docile,  eats  little,  and  needs  no  shelter.  It  can  be 
thoroughly  trusted  not  to  wander  away  from  its  mas- 
ter's house.  It  was  to  this  class  of  horses  tlTat  the  in- 
surrectionists owed  much  of  their  success.    They  were 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  119 

all  horsemen,  and  as  skilful  as  Indians  wlien  in  the 
saddle. 

The  women  deserve  the  credit  of  being  more  in- 
dustrious than  the  men,  as  they  have  their  domestic 
duties  to  attend  to,  and  often  superintend  the  farm 
and  weave  a  little  cotton  for  home  use.  Sufficient 
cotton  is  grown  for  this  purpose;  but,  though  the 
finest  quality  of  sea-island  cotton  can  be  grown  at 
points  along  the  coast,  its  cultivation  has  not  proved  a 
success.  They  also  prepare  from  egg-shells  Cascarilla 
powder,  so  favorite  a  cosmetic  with  Cuban  ladies  that 
over  100,000  pounds  of  it  are  annually  consumed. 

The  woman  dresses  as  simply  as  the  man, — a  cami- 
son,  or  frock,  a  kerchief  around  her  neck,  and  slippers 
on  her  bare  feet  constituting  her  usual  attire.  On  her 
head  is  worn  a  broad-brimmed  straw  hat.  The  chil- 
dren are  dressed  still  more  simply,  being  left  in  a  state 
of  nature  until  nine  or  ten  years  of  age.  These  people 
marry  very  young, — from  thirteen  to  fifteen  for  girls, 
from  sixteen  to  eighteen  for  youths.  Their  families 
are  almost  always  large,  and  the  chief  increase  of  the 
population  takes  place  in  the  rural  districts.  There 
is  abundant  room  for  them,  for  nine-tenths  of  the  soil 
of  the  island  await  cultivation. 

The  dwellings  of  the  rural  population  are  of  the 
simplest  kind,  being  little  more  than  one-story  huts, 
put  together  with  poles  and  palm  leaves,  and  thatched 
sufificiently  to  keep  out  the  rain.  Air  is  welcomed,  and 
if  a  door  is  added  it  always  stands  open.  The  floor  is 
often  of  earth,  and  the  hut  contains  a  living-room  and 
one  or  two  sleeping-rooms,  while  a  roofed  passage 
connects  it  with  out-buildings,  where  the  women  per- 
form their  cooking  and  other  household  labors. 


I20  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

These  people  differ  in  their  customs,  and  even  in 
their  food,  from  the  inhabitants  of  the  cities.  They 
take  but  two  meals  a  day;  though  coffee  is  inordinately 
used,  being  drunk  at  morning  and  night  and  at  inter- 
vals during  the  day,  particularly  when  a  guest  appears. 
They  are  freely  hospitable,  and  the  guest  who  is 
present  at  meal-time  is  expected  to  take  a  seat  at  the 
table  without  waiting  for  an  invitation.  To  fail  to  do 
so  would  be  an  offence. 

The  morning  meal  of  the  small  farmer  consists  of 
fried  pork  and  boiled  rice,  with  roasted  plantains  in 
place  of  bread.  The  dinner  embraces  the  same  viands 
with  the  exception  of  the  pork,  which  is  replaced  with 
beef,  roast  pig,  or  game;  or,  more  commonly,  with 
ajiaco,  the  national  dish,  a  favorite  stew  composed 
of  fresh  meat  and  vegetables  of  various  kinds,  with 
plenty  of  broth.  Rice  is  cooked  in  it,  and  it  forms  a 
cheap,  palatable,  and  nutritious  dish.  Various  other 
savory  dishes  are  used,  which  need  not  be  described. 

Amusements  are  not  wanting  to  the  Monteros.  In 
addition  to  their  favorite  cock-fight,  they  have  a  goose- 
fight,  not  less  cruel,  in  which  the  sport  consists  in  the 
effort  to  pluck  the  head  off  a  live  goose  when  at  full 
gallop.  There  are  various  religious  feasts  and  fes- 
tivals, celebrated  by  processions,  games,  dancing,  and 
other  sports.  During  the  carnival,  or  other  seasons 
of  merry-making,  it  is  a  common  custom,  in  the 
Vuelta  Arriba,  for  groups  of  masked  and  oddly  cos- 
tumed horsemen  to  ride  through  the  streets  with 
grotesque  antics.  Their  dances  have  much  in  them 
that  is  peculiar,  many  of  the  old-fashioned  customs, 
long  vanished  in  the  cities,  being  retained. 

The  rural  Cubans  are  glaringly  ignorant.     Books 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  121 

and  schools  are  unknown  among  them,  and  the  in- 
habitants of  Central  Africa  are  not  more  lacking  in 
intellectual  cultivation.  Indolence  and  ignorance,  in- 
deed, are  their  prevailing  characteristics.  They  are 
as  much  addicted  as  the  city  people  to  gambling,  but 
less  so  to  drinking,  being  in  the  latter  respect  very 
temperate.  They  seem  to  have  no  taste  for  ardent 
spirits,  the  extent  of  their  indulgence  being  to  drink 
the  ordinary  claret  of  the  country,  and  anything 
stronger  is  seldom  imbibed. 

The  recent  insurrection  in  Cuba  was  most  severely 
felt  by  these  helpless  country  people;  the  young  men 
joining  in  numbers  the  Cuban  army,  the  old  men, 
women,  and  children  being  driven  under  Weyler's 
orders  to  the  cities,  their  houses  and  crops  destroyed, 
and  they  left  to  perish  in  thousands  of  starvation.  Not 
less  than  200,000  of  them  are  said  to  have  met  this 
cruel  fate. 

Let  us  now  seek  the  very  diflferent  scene  of  planta- 
tion life,  and  observe  how  time  passes  in  the  mansion 
of  a  sugar  planter.  This  we  find  to  be  strikingly  un- 
like the  humble  home  and  life  of  the  Montero.  As  a 
rule,  the  houses  of  the  planters  are  large  and  roomy 
stone  mansions,  with  immense  doors  and  windows, 
as  in  city  houses,  the  windows  without  glass.  Tiles 
of  burnt  clay  or  marble  cover  the  floor,  and  no  provi- 
sion is  made  for  fire,  it  being  a  rare  occasion  when 
need  of  this  is  felt  in  Cuban  air. 

In  front  and  rear  there  are  usually  spacious  piazzas, 
whose  coolness  causes  them  to  be  frequently  used  as 
dining-  and  sitting-rooms,  the  sun  being  kept  out  by 
curtains  of  canvas  lowered  from  the  roof.  Nearly 
always  the  houses  are  of  one  story,  and  every  provi- 


122  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

sion  is  made  to  insure  coolness.  There  is  a  large  hall, 
on  whose  sides  are  suites  of  bed-chambers  and  sitting- 
rooms,  while  in  the  rear  is  the  court-yard,  bounded  on 
one  side  by  rooms  for  servants,  offices,  etc.,  on  the 
other,  perhaps,  by  stables,  a  wall  closing  the  rear.  The 
court-yard  in  some  cases  is  used  for  horses  and  as  a 
playground  for  children;  but  more  tasteful  families 
convert  it  into  a  beautiful  garden,  planted  with  fruit 
trees  and  with  the  fragrant  flowers  of  the  island. 

In  these  mansions  lazy  comfort  is  the  rule  of  the 
day  for  the  family,  easy-chairs  being  everywhere,  in 
which  one  can  pass  the  slow  hours  with  a  book  or  a 
chat,  dropping  oflf  at  suitable  intervals  into  the  land 
of  dreams.  A  game  of  billiards  or  of  cards  can  be 
had  for  those  fond  of  these  amusements,  and  a  gallop 
around  the  plantation  serves  to  break  the  monotony 
of  the  day.  In  this  out-door  exercise  one  may  see 
numbers  of  mills  in  busy  operation,  fields  of  the 
waving  cane  spreading  far  before  the  eyes,  and  along 
the  roads  bordering  hedges  of  tlie  beautiful  Pina 
Raton,  or  maya,  which  is  the  fence  generally  used  in 
Cuba,  varied  rarely  by  the  Mexican  maguey,  with  its 
broad,  saw-edged  leaves. 

The  pifia  bears  some  resemblance  to  the  maguey, 
and  grows  high,  with  a  thick,  strong  stem,  the  leaves 
being  dentated  and  ending  in  sharp  points.  While  the 
outer  leaves  are  of  a  bright  green,  those  within  are  of 
an  intense  vermilion  color,  the  exquisitely  tinted 
flowers  nestling  in  their  centre.  Long  miles  of  this 
bright-colored  hedge  give  a  peculiar  and  pleasing 
eflfect  to  a  Cuban  landscape. 

The  ladies  of  the  country  mansion,  we  may  say, 
usually  prefer  the  cities  to  the  plantations,  and  are 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  123 

apt  to  visit  their  country-homes  at  rare  intervals  only, 
A  few  weeks  are  passed  there  in  the  summer,  and 
generally  there  is  a  lively  party  and  a  gay  frolic  at 
Christmas.  When  the  proprietors  are  wealthy  much 
style  is  observed  during  the  presence  of  the  ladies, — 
the  servants  being  in  showy  livery,  the  service  elegant, 
and  ladies  and  gentlemen  alike  in  full  dress.  But 
under  ordinary  circumstances  show  is  dispensed  with, 
and  life  is  passed  in  the  easiest  and  least  troublesome 
way  available, — the  ladies  indulging  in  the  ease  of  the 
rocking-chair,  the  gentlemen  looking  after  the  in- 
terests of  the  estate,  or  spending  their  time  in  sports 
and  amusements. 

The  estate  has,  in  addition  to  the  mansion,  the  dwell- 
ings of  the  laborers, — often  the  rudest  of  huts, — a 
hospital  for  the  sick,  and  various  other  buildings; 
most  important  of  which,  of  course,  is  the  sugar-mill, 
of  which  we  must  reserve  a  description  for  a  later 
section. 


VIL  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTIONS* 

COFFEE. 

Cuba,  with  its  remarkably  fertile  soil,  its  abundant 
rainfall,  and  its  tropical  climate,  possesses  vast  capa- 
bilities in  agricultural  production,  though  as  yet  only 
a  small  proportion  of  its  soil  has  been  cultivated,  and 
that  in  a  half-hearted  way.  With  skill,  energy,  and 
enterprise,  such  as  may  be  applied  to  this  rich  land  in 
the  near  future  under  American  influence,  its  produc- 
tive powers  can  be  greatly  increased,  and  it  may  be 
made  one  of  the  garden  spots  of  the  earth. 

We  have  already  described  its  varied  fruits  and 
spoken  of  its  minor  farming  operations.  It  remains 
to  deal  more  at  length  with  its  three  leading  crops, 
coffee,  sugar,  and  tobacco,  which  have  formed  the 
foundation  of  the  prosperity  of  the  island  and  furnished 
the  main  elements  of  its  commerce.  One  of  these, 
cofTee,  has  become,  however,  largely  a  thing  of  the 
past;  its  culture  having  in  great  part  vanished  before 
the  competition  of  Brazil,  Java,  and  other  countries 
which  used  improved  machinery  to  diminish  the  cost 
of  production,  and  of  the  more  profitable  sugar  cul- 
ture of  the  island.  The  industry  received  a  severe 
blow  from  the  destructive  hurricanes  of  1843  ^"*^  1846, 
which  brought  ruin  to  many  of  the  estates.  These 
were  followed  by  a  long  succession  of  wet  years,  under 
which  the  culture  rapidly  declined.  As  a  result, 
coflfee  was  widely  replaced  by  sugar-cane,  and  the  in- 
124 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        125 

dustry  has  since  then  languished.  Yet  the  mountain- 
sides and  highlands  of  the  eastern  section  of  the  island 
are  especially  suited  to  this  crop;  cofifee  of  excellent 
quality  can  be  produced,  and  there  seems  no  reason 
why  this  once  important  industry  should  not  be  re- 
vived. As  it  is,  the  insurrections  have  aided  greatly 
in  checking  its  progress,  and  to-day  Cuba  does  not 
produce  enough  cofTee  for  its  own  consumption. 

The  cultivation  of  the  cofifee-plant  was  introduced 
from  the  neighboring  islands  early  in  the  eighteenth 
century;  though  it  was  not  until  the  end  of  the  cen- 
tury, when  the  negro  revolution  in  San  Domingo 
drove  many  of  the  French  planters  from  that  island 
to  Cuba,  that  it  became  active.  Numbers  of  these 
refugees  settled  in  the  vicinity  of  Trinidad  and  San- 
tiago, where  their  industry  converted  long-neglected 
lands  into  productive  plantations,  and  for  many  years 
afterwards  cofYee  was  a  very  profitable  crop. 

Its  decline  is  largely  due  to  persistence  in  antiquated 
methods  of  culture  and  to  the  exactions  of  the  Spanish 
government,  whose  severe  tariff  charges  on  exported 
coffee,  and  internal  taxes  on  that  for  local  consump- 
tion, have  discouraged  planters  and  prevented  the  re- 
covery of  the  industry.  Under  new  conditions  and 
with  skill  and  economy  in  its  cultivation  there  seems 
no  reason  why  coffee  should  not  again  become  an  im- 
portant crop. 

The  coffee-plant  is  an  evergreen  shrub,  which  bears 
oblong  berries,  green  at  first,  then  bright  red,  and 
finally  purple.  Each  berry — of  about  the  size  of  a 
cranberry  or  small  cherry — contains  two  seeds,  en- 
veloped in  pulp;  the  seeds,  when  ripe,  being  semi- 
elliptical  in  shape  and  of  a  horny  hardness.    In  plant- 


126  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

ing,  holes  are  made  four  or  five  inches  apart  and  a 
number  of  seeds  placed  in  each.  After  the  appearance 
of  the  shoot,  which  requires  about  forty  days,  the  plant 
is  kept  carefully  weeded,  and  allowed  to  grow  for  two 
years,  at  which  time  plants  that  are  thirty  inches  high 
are  cropped.  Fruit  first  appears  at  the  end  of  the  third 
year,  and  becomes  abundant  at  the  end  of  the  fourth. 
Under  good  conditions,  the  plants  continue  in  bearing 
for  thirty  or  more  years,  though  as  they  grow  older 
they  yield  well  only  every  alternate  year.  Coffee  is 
the  poor  man's  crop.  It  does  not  need  the  extensive 
operations  and  costly  machinery  of  sugar  to  be  made 
profitable,  and  may  be  raised  with  profit  on  small 
estates.  The  mountain  regions  of  the  Santiago  de 
Cuba  province  are  specially  adapted  to  it,  though  it 
extended  over  much  of  the  island  during  its  period 
of  prosperity.  This  period  ended  with  the  rebellion  of 
1868,  which  was  largely  confined  to  Santiago  de  Cuba, 
and  put  an  end  generally  to  industrial  operations  in 
that  province.  After  the  close  of  the  insurrection, 
coffee  culture  began  again  in  many  localities;  but  the 
1895  outbreak  completely  checked  operations,  and 
few,  if  any,  coffee  estates  now  remain. 

Aside  from  its  utility,  the  coffee  culture  has  a  reason 
for  existence  in  the  remarkable  beauty  of  the  planta- 
tions, which  the  tropics  present  nothing  to  surpass. 
We  cannot  better  show  the  truth  of  this  statement 
than  in  the  following  extract  from  Ballou's  "  Due 
South:" 

"  As  the  sugar  plantation  surpasses  the  coffee  in 
wealth,  so  the  coffee  estate  surpasses  the  sugar  in 
every  natural  beauty  and  attractiveness.  A  coffee 
plantation,  well  and  properly  laid  out,  is  one  of  the 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        127 

most  beautiful  gardens  that  can  well  be  conceived  of, 
in  its  variety  and  loveliness  baffling  description.  An 
estate  devoted  to  this  purpose  usually  covers  a  hun- 
dred acres,  more  or  less,  planted  in  regular  squares  of 
one  acre  or  thereabouts,  intersected  by  broad  alleys 
lined  with  palms,  mangoes,  bananas,  oranges,  and 
other  fruits;  as  the  coffee,  unlike  the  sugar-cane,  re- 
quires partial  protection  from  the  ardor  of  the  sun. 
Mingled  with  the  trees  are  lemons,  limes,  pome- 
granates. Cape  jasmines,  and  a  species  of  wild  helio- 
trope, fragrant  as  the  morning.  Occasionally,  in  the 
wide  reach  of  the  estate,  there  is  seen  a  solitary,  broad- 
spreading  ceiba,  in  hermit-like  isolation  from  other 
trees,  but  shading  a  fragrant  undergrowth. 

"  Conceive  of  this  beautiful  arrangement,  and  then 
of  the  whole  when  in  flower;  the  coffee,  with  its  milk- 
white  blossoms,  so  abundant  that  it  seems  as  though 
a  pure  white  cloud  of  snow  had  fallen  there,  and  left 
the  rest  of  the  vegetation  fresh  and  green.  Inter- 
spersed in  these  fragrant  alleys  dividing  the  coffee- 
plants  is  the  red  of  the  Mexican  rose,  the  flowering 
pomegranate,  the  yellow  jasmine,  and  the  large,  gaudy 
flower  of  the  penon,  shrouding  its  parent  stem  in  a 
cloak  of  scarlet.  Here,  too,  are  seen  clusters  of  the 
graceful  yellow  flag,  and  many  wild  flowers,  unknown 
by  name,  entwining  their  tender  stems  about  the  base 
of  the  fruit  trees.  In  short,  a  coffee  plantation  is  a 
perfect  floral  paradise,  full  of  fragrance  and  repose." 

In  addition  to  the  plants  named,  rice,  plantain, 
cacao,  tamarind,  and  the  cocoa-nut  palm  are  planted 
on  the  coffee  estate,  adding  at  once  to  the  beauty  of 
j  the  fields  and  the  profit  of  the  culture.  Along  the 
i      roadways  leading  from  the  dwelling-house  through 


128  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  fields  the  royal  palm  and  other  attractive  trees  are 
grown  in  long,  graceful  rows,  forming  in  time  stately 
and  charming  avenues. 

The  coffee-plant  begins  to  blossom  in  February,  the 
blossoming  continuing  through  most  of  the  spring. 
This  is  the  season  when  the  fields  display  their  greatest 
beauty;  the  green,  waxy  leaves,  starred  with  their  mul- 
titude of  white  blossoms,  extending  as  far  as  the  eye 
can  reach,  while  above  them  tower  the  banana  with 
its  massive  green  cluster,  the  cacao  with  its  red  and 
yellow  fruit,  the  rose-tinted  pomegranate,  the  loftier 
cocoa-nut,  with  its  heavy  clusters  of  nuts,  and  other 
fruit-bearing  plants,  the  whole  presenting  a  vision  of 
tropical  plenty  and  luxuriance. 

The  cofifee-berry  begins  to  attain  maturity  in  Sep- 
tember, and  continues  to  ripen  until  November,  all 
the  hands  on  the  estate,  men,  women,  and  children, 
now  taking  part  in  the  picking,  in  which  each  has  a 
daily  task  to  perform.  About  a  quarter  of  a  pound  per 
bush  is  the  average  yield,  half  a  pound  being  a  large 
yield.  The  bags,  as  fast  as  they  are  filled,  are  taken 
on  mule-back  to  the  cofifee-house,  where  the  overseer 
measures  the  fruit  sent  in  by  each  hand  to  see  if  the 
allotted  share  of  work  has  been  performed. 

In  the  process  of  preparing  for  market,  the  pulping- 
mill  is  the  principal  piece  of  machinery.  This  consists 
of  a  circular  canal,  with  ribbed  sides,  round  which 
rolls  a  large  wooden  wheel,  worked  by  steam-  or 
water-power.  The  berries  are  placed  in  the  canal  and 
the  wheel  is  rolled  over  them,  for  the  purpose  of  break- 
ing and  loosening  the  rind.  The  coffee-house,  in 
which  this  is  done,  is  usually  a  large  frame  or  stone 
building. 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        129 

The  berries  are  next  placed  in  a  large,  dry,  stone 
basin,  where  they  remain  for  twelve  hours,  in  order 
that  the  pulp  enclosing  the  seeds  may  ferment.  Water 
is  then  let  in,  and  this  substance — a  slimy,  mucous 
gum — is  washed  away.  The  next  process  is  that  of 
drying.  The  berries  are  spread  on  the  sccadores,  or 
drying  terraces,  and  left  to  dry  in  the  sun;  the  process 
requiring  from  seven  to  ten  days  if  the  weather  con- 
tinues dry.  The  secadores  are  quadrangular  stone 
basins,  fifty  or  sixty  feet  long  by  twenty  or  thirty  wide, 
arranged  in  terraces  on  a  hill-side,  numbering  perhaps 
a  dozen  in  all.  They  stand  about  three  feet  high,  and 
are  enclosed  by  a  low  stone  coping,  their  plastered 
floors  sloping  from  centre  to  sides,  that  the  water  may 
drain  ofif  in  case  of  rain. 

Should  rain  threaten,  the  berries  are  hastily  raked 
up  into  a  large  heap  in  the  centre  and  covered  by  a 
conical  shield  of  thatch  or  palm  leaves,  which  sheds 
the  water.  The  same  is  done  at  night  as  a  protection 
from  the  dew. 

When  fully  dried,  each  berry  is  enclosed  by  a  dry 
and  dark-colored  pellicle.  After  the  whole  crop  is 
dried  the  berries  are  placed  again  in  the  pulping-mill, 
whose  heavy  wheel  now  cracks  the  dry  skin,  the  two 
grains  of  cofTee — the  seeds  of  the  plant — being  set  free. 
A  fanning-mill,  like  that  used  by  our  own  farmers,  is 
then  brought  into  use  to  dispose  of  the  chafif-like  skins. 
Now,  for  a  third  time,  the  grains  are  put  into  the  pulp- 
ing-mill, this  time  to  color  them, — the  color  of  coffee 
as  we  get  it  not  being  that  given  by  nature.  Lamp- 
black is  added,  to  the  amount  of  half  an  ounce  to  a 
thousand  pounds  of  grains;  or  other  substances,  such 
as  soapstone  and  white  lead,  may  be  used,  if  a  different 

9 


I30  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

shade  of  color  is  required.  This  process  is  called 
polishing. 

The  sorting  process  follows,  the  coffee  grains  being 
poured  through  a  hopper  into  a  circular  sieve,  made 
into  several  compartments  of  different  sized  wire- 
mesh.  As  this  revolves,  the  grain  runs  slowly  from 
end  to  end  of  the  sieve,  being  assorted  in  size  as  it 
falls  through  the  successively  smaller  meshes. 

Three  grades  of  coffee  are  thus  produced,  the  most 
prized  being  the  small  round  grain,  called  el  caracolUlo, 
which  resembles  the  Alocha  cofifee  of  Arabia  in  ap- 
pearance. While  not  better  in  flavor  than  the  other 
grades,  it  is  more  easily  and  thoroughly  roasted  and 
looks  better,  so  that  it  brings  a  dollar  or  two  extra  per 
bag.  The  second  grade  is  called  el  primer,  or  lavado. 
This  is  the  principal  yield,  being  the  large,  full-grown 
berry,  the  former  being  a  stunted  product.  The  third 
grade  forms  the  refuse  cofifee,  which  is  used  upon  the 
place  or  sold  at  a  low  price  for  local  consumption. 

The  cofifee  finally  passes  through  a  careful  hand- 
sorting  to  free  it  from  dirt,  pebbles,  and  decayed  ber- 
ries, this  being  done  on  a  long  table  by  negro  women. 
The  caracolillo  grains  are  very  carefully  gone  over  by 
a  skilled  hand.  The  product,  now  ready  for  market, 
is  packed  in  strong  canvas  bags,  holding  about  107 
pounds  each,  and  transported  to  the  sea-shore  on 
mule-  or  horse-back;  long  lines  of  animals,  carrying 
two  bags  each,  the  head  of  each  tied  to  the  tail  of  the 
one  in  front,  winding  down  the  hill-sides  with  their 
valuable  freight. 

The  cafetales  yielding  the  finest  fruit  have  been  those 
of  the  Sierra  Maestra  Mountain  region,  the  Vuelta 
Abajo   district,   and   the   Alquizar   and    San   Marcos 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.         131 

localities.  Tlie  culture  was  continued  actively  in 
the  specially  favorable  Guantanamo  mountain  district 
when  it  was  rapidly  on  the  decline  elsewhere. 

Of  the  other  products  of  the  coffee  estates  the  cacao 
comes  next  in  importance  to  the  coffee.  The  tree 
bearing  this  fruit  has  something  of  the  size  and  ap- 
pearance of  a  dwarf  pear-tree,  growing  as  high  as  six 
or  eight  feet.  The  fruit  is  a  large  capsule,  with  the 
singular  habit  of  growing  directly  on  the  trunk  and 
the  thick  branches,  the  lower  capsules  even  touching 
the  ground.  The  capsule  is  well  filled  with  beans, 
usually  about  twenty-five  to  each,  surrounded  by  a 
sweet  pulp  of  pleasant  flavor.  In  preparing  chocolate, 
the  seeds  are  roasted,  crushed,  and  ground  to  powder. 
Chocolate  is  much  used  in  Cuba  as  a  beverage,  and 
large  quantities  are  manufactured  into  bon-bons,  the 
favorite  confection  of  Cuban  ladies. 

The  plantano,  or  plantain,  forms  the  bread  of  Cuba, 
being  eaten  roasted  by  the  working-people  at  almost 
every  meal.  There  are  numerous  varietie.s  of  this 
plant,  the  favorite  being  the  banana,  whose  palatable 
fruit  is  considered  the  result  of  long-continued  careful 
cultivation.  Another  important  tree,  growing  every- 
where in  Cuba,  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea-coast, 
is  the  cocoa,  whose  fruit  and  wood  alike  are  of  the 
greatest  value  and  utility.  There  is  no  drink  more 
wholesome  and  refreshing  than  the  milk  of  the  fresh 
plucked  cocoa-nut;  while  a  delicious  preserve  is  made 
from  the  pulp  of  the  green  fruit.  From  the  juice  of 
the  stem  the  natives  make  a  kind  of  wine;  the  fruit 
yields  them  their  cups,  lamps,  and  oil,  and  the  tree 
furnishes  thatch,  brooms,  baskets,  and  other  house- 
hold necessities. 


1.32  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

TOBACCO. 

Cuba  possesses  three  grades  of  soil,  each  suited  to 
one  of  its  three  special  crops.  The  richest  soil  is  black 
in  color,  and  is  best  adapted  to  the  culture  of  the  sugar- 
cane, its  fertility  being  so  great  that  artificial  fertilizers 
are  rarely  needed.  The  red  soil,  deriving  its  color 
from  oxide  of  iron,  is  of  a  lower  grade  of  fertility,  and 
in  this  the  coffee  plantations  are  usually  established. 
Inferior  to  both  of  these  is  the  mulatto-colored  soil, 
the  one  preferred  by  the  tobacco  planters,  who,  how- 
ever, often  mix  other  soils  with  it  to  increase  its  fer- 
tility. Tobacco,  as  is  well  known,  is  exhaustive  to 
land,  and  the  soil  needs  to  be  carefully  chosen  and 
strengthened;  but  the  cultivation  demands  less  care 
than  in  the  case  of  coffee,  and  no  expensive  machinery 
is  required  as  in  the  sugar  production,  while  the  fine 
quality  of  Cuban  tobacco  insures  it  a  ready  market  at 
good  prices.     It  is,  therefore,  largely  grown. 

The  use  of  tobacco  was  first  observed  in  Cuba; 
Columbus,  in  his  second  voyage,  seeing  the  natives 
smoking  it,  rolled  in  a  leaf  somewhat  like  the  modern 
cigar.  "  It  is  said  that  in  this  way  they  do  not  feel 
fatigue.  These  tubes,  or  whatever  we  may  call  them, 
they  call  tabacos."  The  Indian  name  for  the  plant  and' 
leaf  was  cohiba,  but  the  name  of  the  Indian  cigar  has 
taken  its  place. 

The  cultivation  of  the  tobacco-plant  began  in  the 
vicinity  of  Havana  about  1580,  but  the  famous  \^ielta 
Abajo  leaf  was  not  heard  of  before  1790.  The  culture 
has  increased  with  considerable  rapidity  and  has  ex- 
tended to  all  sections  of  the  island.  In  1827  the  to- 
bacco farms  numbered  5534,  in  1846  more  than  9000, 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        133 

and  in  1862  about  11,000.  In  1894  the  number  was 
given  as  8875. 

The  Vuelta  Abajo  region,  comprising  the  western 
section  of  the  island,  yields  the  finest  grade  of  leaf; 
but  this  only  within  a  limited  district,  of  about  eighty 
miles  in  length  by  twenty  in  width.  This  lies  between 
the  mountain  ridge  and  the  southern  coast,  in  the  dis- 
trict surrounding  the  city  of  Pinar  del  Rio.  The 
widely  esteemed  quality  of  the  tobacco  grown  in  this 
region  is  probably  due  to  some  peculiar  element  of  the 
soil,  and  perhaps  as  greatly  to  the  physical  conditions 
of  the  country.  Along  the  northern  border  of  the 
district,  on  which  is  grown  the  best  tobacco,  rises  the 
high  Sierra  de  los  Organos,  down  whose  southward 
slopes  the  frequent  rains  give  rise  to  numerous 
streams,  while  the  surrounding  heated  waters  of  the 
Gulf  Stream  yield  this  region  a  climate  peculiarly  its 
own.  Elsewhere  the  tobacco  varies  in  quality,  being 
harsh  and  strong  in  some  districts,  while  in  others  leaf 
of  great  excellence  is  produced. 

The  restrictions  and  exactions  wnth  which  the  to- 
bacco industry  was  long  surrounded  interfered  greatly 
with  its  prosperity.  Up  to  1791  it  was  controlled  by 
a  monopoly  called  the  "  Commercial  Company  of  Ha- 
vana," and  subsequently  by  the  "  Factoria  de  To- 
bacco," whose  management  was  such  that  only  the 
poorer  classes  of  the  population  engaged  in  the  cul- 
ture, the  "  Factoria"  advancing  funds  for  this  purpose. 
After  this  monopoly  was  suppressed,  the  tobacco  cul- 
ture had  to  contend  with  the  more  profitable  cofifee 
and  sugar  industries.  Recently  it  has  been  seriously 
affected  by  the  insurrection,  Maceo's  raid  into  Pinar 
del  Rio  having  proved  highly  detrimental  to  it. 


134  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  tobacco  farms,  zrgas  in  Cuban  parlance,  are 
generally  situated  on  the  moist  margins  of  rivers  or  in 
other  low  and  damp  localities,  and  are  usually  small, 
ten  acres  or  more  in  size,  while  about  as  much  space 
is  devoted  to  the  growth  of  bananas  and  other  food 
plants.  These  farms  are  scattered  about  wherever  the 
soil  is  richest,  the  intervening  land  remaining  uncul- 
tivated. 

The  plant,  which  is  not  allowed  to  attain  a  height  of 
more  than  six  to  nine  feet,  bears  oblong,  pointed 
leaves,  dark  green  in  color  when  young,  changing  to 
a  yellowish  green  when  mature.  It  has  a  strong  ap- 
petite for  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  soil,  draining 
the  ground  of  its  nourishing  properties  and  needing 
constant  fertilization. 

The  tobacco  seed  is  sown  in  nurseries,  from  w^hich 
the  young  plants  are  taken  in  October  and  November, 
when  three  inches  high,  to  bed  out  in  the  fields,  being 
planted  in  furrows  two  feet  apart.  They  reach  their 
full  size  in  three  months,  during  which  the  utmost 
vigilance  is  needed  to  guard  them  against  the  attacks 
of  destructive  insects,  which  include  the  green  tobacco 
caterpillar  and  several  others.  These  enemies  need 
to  be  fought  day  and  night,  the  planters,  at  the  open- 
ing of  the  buds,  often  seeking  their  foes  with  lights 
all  night  long.  Ploughing  is  also  necessary,  to  keep 
the  furrows  clear  of  weeds. 

When  the  large  leaves,  generally  ten  in  number, 
have  grown,  all  the  small  ones  are  picked  off;  and  the 
flower-bud  at  the  top  of  the  plant  is  also  nipped  off 
when  it  appears,  so  that  all  the  strength  may  be  thrown 
into  the  selected  leaves.  Suckers  sprout  out.  and  these 
also  must  be  removed.     As  a  result,  the  strength  of 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        135 

the  whole  plant  is  thrown  into  the  leaves,  which  ex- 
pand under  the  genial  sunshine, — those  of  the  female 
plant  being  the  largest  and  the  best  adapted  for  the 
wrappers  of  cigars. 

The  leaf  is  bright  green  in  color  until  the  picking 
season,  when  it  begins  to  turn  yellow  and  spotted.  In 
gathering,  the  stalk  is  cut  into  short  sections,  with  two 
leaves  on  each.  This  is  for  convenience  in  hanging 
them  over  the  poles  in  the  drying-house,  a  leaf  de- 
pending on  each  side  of  the  pole.  These  houses  are 
large,  open  structures,  thatched  with  palm-leaves,  and 
supplied  with  rows  of  poles  one  above  another,  upon 
which  the  leaves  are  left  about  five  weeks.  When  the 
curing  process  is  completed,  the  leaves  are  tied  into 
bundles  of  about  100  each,  which  are  gathered  into 
bales,  usually  of  eighty  bundles,  and  wrapped  in  palm 
leaves.  They  are  now  ready  for  conveyance  to  the 
Havana  cigar  factories  or  for  transportation. 

A  tobacco  plantation  has  for  buildings,  in  addition 
to  the  drying-house,  a  dwelling,  some  cattle-sheds,  and 
a  few  rude  huts  for  the  laborers,  of  whom  the  largest 
farms  employ  about  twenty  or  thirty.  Whites  as  well 
as  negroes  are  employed  in  this  work.  It  is  estimated 
that  about  80,000  persons  are  engaged  in  the  tobacco 
culture  in  Cuba,  the  annual  crop  averaging  about 
560,000  bales  of  no  pounds  each. 

Tobacco,  while  secondary  to  sugar  as  a  crop,  is  far 
more  profitable  in  respect  to  acreage,  and  has  the 
advantage  of  not  needing  large  capital  for  its  produc- 
tion. Its  cultivation  is  by  no  means  confined  to  the 
special  region  mentioned,  but  extends  throughout 
Pinar  del  Rio,  while  about  half  the  annual  crop  is 
grown  in  the  Vuelta  Arriba  district.     It  deteriorates 


136  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

in  quality,  however,  outside  of  the  special  area  named ; 
though  it  is  claimed  for  the  valley  of  Manicaragua,  in 
the  south  central  part  of  Santa  Clara  province,  that  "  it 
produces  tobacco  possessed  of  all  the  qualities  of 
aroma,  combustibility,  elasticity,  and  fineness  of  tex- 
ture equal  to  that  of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco."  The 
soil  is  said  to  be  almost  identical  with  that  of  Pinar 

del  Rio. 

SUGAR. 

The  cultivation  of  the  sugar-cane,  the  most  im- 
portant of  the  agricultural  productions  of  Cuba,  began 
more  than  three  centuries  ago.  It  is  said  that  the  plant 
was  first  introduced  in  1530,  in  or  near  Havana,  but 
that  its  first  profitable  cultivation  began  at  Regla,  on 
Havana  Bay,  about  1595.  The  culture  now  extends 
widely  over  the  island,  occupying  the  broad  plains  be- 
tween the  mountains  and  the  sea  and  the  fertile  valleys 
between  the  lateral  mountain  spurs,  a  rich  and  well- 
drained  but  moist  soil  being  required.  Many  of  the 
estates  embrace  several  thousand  acres;  the  total  out- 
crop of  any  other  of  the  West  India  Islands  not  sur- 
passing that  of  three  or  four  of  the  largest  Cuban 
estates,  while  Demerara  alone  equals  Cuba  in  the  use 
of  improved  methods  of  manufacture.  Of  the  other 
cane-sugar  countries  of  the  world,  Java  alone  comes 
within  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  product  of  Cuba  in  normal 
times.  Yet  the  facihties  of  the  island  in  this  direction 
are  far  from  exhausted;  and  it  is  said  that  if  all  the 
land  suitable  for  cane  growth  were  cultivated  Cuba 
might  supply  the  w^hole  western  hemisphere  with 
sugar. 

Several  varieties  of  cane  are  grown  in  Cuba,  the 
oldest  known  being  the  criolla,  or  native  cane,  a  thin, 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        137 

poor,  and  not  very  juicy  species.  The  favorite  cane 
is  the  Otaheite,  introduced  in  1795,  which  is  large, 
thick,  and  rich  in  juice.  Still  more  recently  the  Cris- 
tallina  was  introduced,  and  is  preferred  by  many 
planters  to  the  Otaheite.  The  cane  varies  in  color, 
length  of  joint,  height,  and  other  particulars,  not  only 
with  different  varieties,  but  also  with  the  character  of 
soil  and  mode  of  culture.  Its  height,  while  averaging 
six  or  seven  feet,  sometimes  reaches  twenty.  The 
sugar-cane  bears  a  close  resemblance  in  appearance 
to  Indian  corn,  being  divided,  like  it,  by  annular  joints 
into  short  lengths,  long,  narrow  leaves  sprouting  from 
each  joint,  of  which  the  lower  ones  drop  off  when  the 
cane  is  near  maturity.  The  outer  part  of  the  cane  is 
hard  and  brittle,  while  the  inner  is  a  soft  pith  which 
contains  the  sweet  juice.  This  is  very  nutritious,  and 
the  negroes  are  particularly  fond  of  it. 

In  the  culture  of  the  cane  slips  or  cuttings  are 
planted,  consisting  of  the  top  and  two  or  three  of  the 
upper  joints.  These  are  laid  longitudinally  in  holes 
and  covered  with  an  inch  or  two  of  earth.  They  sprout 
from  the  joints,  the  sprouts  appearing  in  about  a 
fortnight  after  planting.  As  they  grow,  more  earth 
is  gradually  thrown  into  the  hole  until  it  is  completely 
filled  up. 

The  planting  takes  place  during  the  rainy  season, 
and  the  cutting  begins  after  Christmas,  and  is  in  some 
cases  continued  up  to  May.  When  fully  ripe,  the 
cane  is  of  a  light  golden-yellow  color,  streaked  here  and 
there  with  red,  the  top  dark  green  with  long,  narrow, 
drooping  leaves,  from  whose  centre  shoots  up  a  silvery 
stem  two  feet  high,  fringed  at  top  with  a  plume  of 
delicate  lilac  hue.    The  outer  skin  now  becomes  dry, 


138  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

smooth,  and  brittle;  the  cane  heavy,  the  pith  of  a  dark 
gray,  inclining  to  brown,  and  the  juice  sweet  and 
glutinous.  A  plantation,  once  laid  out,  will  continue 
for  years  by  a  simple  process  of  renewal,  several  crops 
being  raised  in  succession  from  the  same  roots.  Usu- 
ally about  one-third  of  the  ground  is  replanted  an- 
nually. The  sugar  estate  lacks  the  natural  beauty  of 
the  coffee  plantation,  the  cane  not  needing  shade,  and 
extending,  like  our  western  corn-fields,  over  broad 
levels  of  ground. 

Palms  and  graceful  fruit  trees,  however,  are  planted 
around  the  houses  of  the  owner  and  overseer,  yielding 
stretches  of  inviting  shade;  while  the  negro  cabins  are 
surrounded  by  plantain  and  mango  trees,  and  patches 
of  sweet  potatoes  and  yams.  Several  hundred  blacks 
are  employed  on  the  larger  plantations,  reaching  as 
many  as  700  in  some  instances,  though  every  introduc- 
tion of  improved  machinery  reduces  the  number  re- 
quired. In  addition,  a  considerable  number  of  oxen, 
horses,  and  mules  are  necessary,  and  the  running  ex- 
penses of  a  large  estate  are  very  heavy.  The  rate  of 
profit,  however,  has  long  been  large,  though  it  has 
suffered  a  serious  decline  through  the  recent  competi- 
tion with  state-protected  beet-root  sugar.  About 
twenty  years  ago  there  began  a  strong  movement  to- 
wards the  centralization  of  estates,  planters  perceiving 
the  value  of  operating  on  a  large  scale.  The  effect, 
however,  of  the  destruction  of  cane  and  machinery 
during  the  recent  insurrection  has  been  very  serious, 
if  not  absolutely  ruinous  to  many  of  the  planters. 

The  sugar-fields  are  divided  into  squares  of  three  or 
four  acres  each,  with  roadways  between  for  the  con- 
venience of  teams  in  gathering.    Tramways  have  been 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        139 

laid  on  some  of  the  large  estates,  leading  to  the  doors 
of  the  grinding-mlUs,  When  the  cane  is  ripe  for  cut- 
ting, a  sugar  estate  becomes  a  scene  of  the  greatest 
activity.  The  mill  is  made  ready  to  devour  the  pro- 
duct with  all  possible  rapidity,  and  the  hands — men, 
women,  and  children — are  marshalled  in  the  fields, 
each  armed  with  a  machete,  the  peculiar  Cuban  knife. 
They  spread  out  over  the  fields  and  the  cutting  begins, 
a  first  cut  taking  ofT  the  long  leaves  and  the  top  of  the 
cane,  useless  except  as  food  for  cattle,  a  second  near 
the  root  felling  the  cane.  It  is  left  where  it  falls  to  be 
gathered  up  by  the  carters,  who  follow  the  cutters  with 
their  slow-moving  carts.  These,  as  they  are  filled, 
drive  to  the  mill,  emptying  their  loads  under  a  long 
shed  near  the  crusher. 

Faster  than  the  mill  can  grind  the  cane  accumulates, 
a  huge  heap  being  made  by  night.  But  as  the  mill 
runs  unceasingly  night  and  day,  the  sheds  are  nearly 
or  quite  emptied  before  morning,  and  the  hands  are 
roused  at  an  early  hour  and  sent  to  the  fields,  that  the 
greedy  maw  of  the  mill  may  not  grow  hungry.  During 
the  grinding  season,  in  fact,  the  hands  are  obliged  to 
work  nearly  twenty  hours  out  of  the  twenty-four. 
They  make  up  for  this  severe  labor,  however,  during 
the  remainder  of  the  year,  when  their  tasks  are  com- 
paratively light. 

The  sugar-mill  is  the  central  point  of  the  whole 
process,  and  the  one  whose  operations  demand  the 
most  intelligence  and  care.  It  is  usually  very  large, 
consisting  of  an  immense  roof,  supported  by  posts  and 
pillars,  with  brick  pavement  and  stone  stairways.  The 
sides  are  left  open  for  the  free  movement  of  air,  so 
that  virtually  it  is  but  a  great  shed.     It  contains  the 


I40  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

engine-house,  with  all  the  machinery  for  grinding  and 
boiling,  and  the  purging  and  drying  houses.  Some 
small  estates  may  still  employ  ox-power  for  grinding 
the  cane,  but  in  nearly  all  cases  powerful  steam-engines 
are  used,  attended  usually  by  American  engineers. 
The  engineer,  in  fact,  is  the  most  important  man  upon 
the  place,  and  must  be  able  not  only  to  keep  the 
engine  in  operation,  but  to  repair  any  injuries  to  the 
machinery  that  may  take  place.  This  is  work  that 
requires  an  intelligence  and  mechanical  skill  w^hich 
none  need  look  for  in  Spaniard,  Cuban,  or  negro, 
and  for  which  high  salaries  are  paid,  while  the  engi- 
neer is  free  to  spend  six  months  of  the  year  in  "  the 
States." 

The  cane  is  thrown  from  the  shed  on  an  endless 
chain,  w'hich  carries  and  feeds  it  into  the  strong  jaws 
of  the  crusher.  This  consists  usually  of  three  huge 
rollers  of  solid  iron,  two  beneath  and  one  above,  be- 
tween which  the  cane  passes  in  a  constant  stream, 
being  squeezed  to  the  thickness  of  half  an  inch  be-" 
tween  the  first  two  rollers  and  to  a  still  smaller  size 
between  the  second  pair.  The  yield  of  juice  is  from 
sixty  to  sixty-five  per  cent.,  or  as  much  as  seventy 
where  hydraulic  pressure  is  used.  In  the  latest  mills 
five  or  more  rollers  are  employed,  and  the  yield  of 
juice  is  comparatively  greater.  The  refuse  cane  js 
delivered  into  a  w-ooden  trough,  whence  it  is  taken 
to  serve  as  fuel  under  the  boilers.  In  the  more  recent 
diffusion  process,  applied  in  some  localities,  nearly 
the  whole  of  the  juice  is  extracted. 

The  juice  as  expressed  is  a  turbid,  frothy  liquid  of 
yellowish  green  color,  w^hich  the  hot  climate  renders 
liable  to  quick  fermentation.     To  prevent  this  it  is 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        141 

carried  to  the  clarifiers  without  delay,  being  filtered 
or  skimmed  on  the  way  to  remove  all  particles  of  pulp 
and  other  solid  matter.  The  clarifiers  are  large  kettles 
heated  by  steam  to  a  temperature  near  that  of  boiling. 
Milk  of  lime  is  added  to  neutralize  the  acid  constitu- 
ents of  the  juice,  and  the  impurities  rise  to  the  surface 
as  a  thick  scum,  from  which  the  clear  liquid  below  is 
drawn  ofT.  The  clarified  juice  is  next  filtered  through 
vats  nearly  filled  with  bone-black,  and  thence  carried 
by  troughs  to  storage-tanks. 

Evaporation  is  the  next  process.  This  is  performed 
in  vacuum-pans,  few  planters  now  employing  the  old 
and  wasteful  open-pan  process.  The  vacuum-pan  is 
an  air-tight  copper  cylindrical  vessel,  from  six  to 
seven  feet  in  diameter,  and  convex  or  dome-shaped  at 
top  and  bottom.  It  has  a  double  bottom,  forming  a 
cavity  into  which  steam  is  introduced,  and  also  a 
coiled  steam-pipe  in  the  chamber,  resting  upon  the 
upper  bottom.  In  using  the  pan  an  air-pump  is  em- 
ployed to  exhaust  the  air  from  the  cylinder,  in  order 
that  the  contents  may  boil  at  a  low  temperature. 
Three  to  five  of  these  pans  are  used,  the  juice  growing 
thicker  in  each.  The  final  one  of  the  series  is  called  a 
"  strike-pan." 

In  the  process  of  evaporation  the  clarified  juice  is 
mimped  into  the  first  pan,  where  the  boiling  process 
reduces  it  to  a  thin  syrup.  Thence  it  goes  to  the  sec- 
ond pan,  in  which  it  becomes  a  thick  syrup.  If  three 
pans  are  used  the  liquid  is  now  conducted  into  syrup 
clarifiers,  in  which  the  impurities  are  skimmed  ofT, 
and  is  again  filtered  through  bone-black.  A  third 
boiling  takes  place  in  the  strike-pan,  from  which  it  is 
drawn    into    the    strike-heater,    a    double-bottomed 


142  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

kettle  kept  warm  by  steam  and  in  which  the  crystal- 
lization of  the  sugar  takes  place. 

The  process  is  completed  in  the  purging-housi 
This  is  a  large  building,  two  stories  in  height;  the 
upper  floor  being  simply  an  open  framework  with  nu- 
merous rows  of  apertures.  In  these  are  set  the  hor- 
mas,  or  moulds,  funnel-shaped  cylinders  which  receive 
the  crystallized  sugar  and  from  which  the  molasses 
drains  oflf  into  troughs  beneath.  A  layer  of  moist 
earth  or  clay  is  placed  on  the  top  of  these  receptacles, 
whose  moisture  drains  through  and  aids  in  carrying 
off  the  coloring  matter.  The  result  is  that  the  cake 
of  crystallized  sugar  presents  a  composite  appear- 
ance,— pure  white  at  top,  discolored  in  its  central 
section,  and  dark  colored  at  bottom.  The  molasses, 
carried  by  troughs  to  hogsheads  below,  is  afterwards 
reboiled,  and  a  common  grade  of  sugar  made  from 
it.  In  some  cases  the  "  claying"  process  is  not  em- 
ployed, and  the  sugar,  known  as  muscovado,  is  of  a 
rich  brown  color  throughout.  This  yields  a  better 
quality  of  molasses,  sweeter  in  taste,  while  the  more 
uniform  grade  of  the  sugar  produced  makes  it  prefer- 
able to  refiners. 

The  remaining  processes  may  be  briefly  described. 
The  drained  sugar  is  exposed  in  the  drying-house  to 
the  air  and  the  sun,  the  forms  from  the  hormas  being 
broken  up  so  that  it  may  be  thoroughly  dried.  It  is 
then  taken  to  the  packing-room  and  poured  into  the 
empty  packing-boxes,  in  which  the  loose  sugar  is 
beaten  down  with  heavy  packing-sticks,  the  negroes 
keeping  time  with  hands  and  voices.  The  boxes, 
holding  400  pounds  each,  are  finally  closed,  strapped 
with  raw  hide,  and  shipped  to  market.     The  process 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        143 

of  sugar-making,  of  course,  varies  somewhat  on  dif- 
ferent estates,  but  the  same  general  methods  are  in 
use  on  all. 

The  total  production  of  sugar  in  Cuba  averages,  in 
normal  times,  about  1,000,000  tons.  In  1895  the 
product  was  1,004,264  tons,  of  which  more  than  three- 
fourths  were  consumed  in  the  United  States.  In  the 
following  year  it  fell  ofif,  in  consequence  of  the  in- 
surrection, to  225,221  tons,  and  in  1897  and  1898 
suffered  a  still  greater  diminution.  Under  the  coming 
conditions  in  Cuba  this  important  industry  may  per- 
haps be  susceptible  of  a  great  development,  its  decline 
being  not  alone  due  to  the  beet-sugar  competition,  but 
to  the  severe  restrictions  of  Spanish  financial  methods. 
With  an  improved  governmental  system,  the  industry 
may  regain  its  old  prosperity. 

While  the  sugar-house  has  been  supplied  with  the 
best  modern  machinery  and  the  most  economical  ap- 
pliances, and  many  miles  of  railway  have  been  laid  to 
expedite  the  bringing  in  the  cane  from  the  fields  and 
convey  the  sugar  to  market,  the  field  cultivation  re- 
mains in  many  respects  antiquated.  The  use  of  fer- 
tilizers has  scarcely  been  introduced;  there  are  no 
irrigation  works  of  any  account;  the  wooden  plough 
is  still  often  used,  and  on  only  a  few  estates  is  the 
ground  properly  cleaned  or  sufficiently  prepared  for 
the  new  crop.  Much  might  be  saved,  also,  through 
the  use  of  cane-cutting  machines,  if  such  could  be 
devised;  and,  in  short,  much  needs  to  be  done  in  the 
way  of  economy  and  skilful  management  at  the  field 
end  of  the  process. 


144  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

LIVE-STOCK. 

In  addition  to  the  cultivated  area  of  Cuba,  a  large 
section  is  devoted  to  grazing,  there  being  fully 
9,000,000  acres  of  fertile  plains,  natural  pasture  lands. 
These,  which  extend  through  all  parts  of  the  island, 
but  specially  exist  in  its  eastern  half,  have  long  been 
used  in  the  grazing  of  cattle  and  horses,  which  are 
raised  in  large  numbers.  The  pasture  lands  north  of 
Trinidad  are  so  well  adapted  to  horses  that  it  was 
once  a  common  saying  on  the  island  that  all  the 
beggars  of  Trinidad  rode  on  horseback.  In  the  vi- 
cinity of  Santo  Espiritu  and  extending  eastward  o\^er 
Camaguey  to  Santiago  de  Cuba  province  great  herds 
of  cattle  have  been  kept,  the  city  of  Puerto  Principe 
being  a  central  point  in  a  very  extensive  grazing  dis- 
trict. 

In  these  wide  cattle  ranges  water  is  usually  abun- 
dant, Cuba  being  notable  for  its  multitude  of  springs 
and  its  numerous  streams  of  the  purest  water.  In 
some  localities,  however,  surface  water  is  deficient, 
and  here  deep  wells  are  dug,  sometimes  as  much  as 
300  feet  in  depth.  From  these  the  water  is  raiseB  in 
buckets  carried  on  endless  belts  over  large  wheels, 
animal  power  being  employed  in  the  work. 

The  Cuban  cattle  farms  are  of  two  kinds.  One  of 
these  is  the  open  range,  where  the  cattle  are  left  free, 
getting  water  from  the  running  brooks,  and  only 
looked  after  at  intervals  by  the  Cuban  equivalent  of 
the  cowboy.  The  potrcro,  or  corral,  the  usual  form,  is 
an  enclosed  space,  encircled  by  stone  walls,  in  which 
the  cattle  are  more  carefully  attended  to.  The  cattle 
business  has  been  a  profitable  one,  though  no  care  was 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        145 

given  to  fattening  for  market,  the  beeves  being  sold 
just  as  they  came  from  the  ranges.  The  result  is  that 
good  beef  in  Cuba  is  a  very  rare  article. 

The  immense  herds  of  cattle,  spread  over  vast  plains, 
here  and  there  divided  by  stone  walls,  and  shaded  at 
points  by  groves  of  palm  and  cocoa-nut  trees,  formed 
in  past  years  a  spectacle  well  worth  seeing.  The  num- 
ber of  potreros  in  1827  was  over  3000;  twenty  years 
after  they  had  increased  to  nearly  4500,  and  in  1862 
to  over  6000.  In  1894  there  seemed  a  decline,  the 
estimate  being  4300;  but  this  reduction  in  numbers 
was  doubtless  accompanied  by  increase  in  size.  At 
present  there  are  virtually  none,  or  at  least  they  are 
unstocked,  the  herds  having  been  nearly  annihilated 
during  the  insurrection. 

In  addition  to  its  excellent  facilities  for  raising 
cattle,  Cuba  presents  the  best  opportunities  for  the 
raising  of  hogs,  to  which  no  attention  is  needed,  the 
seeds  of  the  palm  tree  furnishing  them  with  an  abun- 
dance of  fattening  food.  Yet,  in  spite  of  these  facili- 
ties, neither  cattle  nor  hogs  have  been  raised  in  suf^- 
cient  numbers  for  the  home  supply,  and  for  many 
years  past  hog  products  from  the  United  States  and 
dried  beef  from  the  Argentine  Republic  have  been 
among  the  largest  items  of  importation.  The  Cuban 
beef  is  largely  cured  by  drying  it,  salted,  in  the  sun. 
This,  known  as  "jerked  beef."  will  keep  for  several 
weeks,  and  is  a  common  article  on  the  Cuban  table. 

Some  of  the  finest  of  the  Cuban  horses  are  raised 
around  Puerto  Principe.  The  horse  of  Cuba,  a  de- 
velopment of  the  early  Spanish  stock,  has  become  a 
special  breed  under  the  influence  of  the  new  climatic 
conditions  surrounding  it.     It  is  of  small  size,  with  a 


146  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

short,  stout  body,  neatly-shaped  limbs,  intelligent  eyes, 
and  a  peculiar  gait  which  renders  it  exceedingly  easy 
as  a  saddle-horse.  It  has  a  thick  neck  and  heavy 
mane  and  tail,  and  in  its  unbroken  state  presents  a 
very  rough  and  shaggy  appearance. 

No  horses  are  easier  to  ride,  the  gait  being  some- 
thing like  that  of  our  pacing  horses,  though  much 
more  easy;  and  the  greatest  novice  in  horsemanship 
need  not  hesitate  to  mount  a  well-broken  Cuban  horse. 
So  smooth  is  the  pace  that  on  some  horses  what  is 
called  el  paso  giiatrapeo  can  be  performed,  the  move- 
ment being  so  gentle  that  the  rider  can  carry  a  full 
glass  of  water  at  rapid  speed  without  spilling.  The 
endurance  of  the  Cuban  horse  is  also  remarkable,  a 
journey  of  from  forty-five  to  sixty  miles  being  per- 
formed day  after  day  without  evidence  of  fatigue, 
while  on  forced  journeys  seventy  to  eighty  miles  are 
not  unusual.  It  is  also  very  gentle  in  temper,  a  vicious 
animal  being  rare.  In  fact,  the  horse  is  made  almost 
one  of  the  family  by  the  Cuban  owner,  being  kept  in 
the  patio  in  town  houses,  and  almost  in  the  house 
itself  by  the  country  people.  It  was  to  the  intelli- 
gence, docility,  and  endurance  of  their  horses  that  the 
Cuban  insurgents  owed  much  of  their  success  during 
the  recent  insurrection. 

The  latest  available  statement  of  the  number  of  do- 
mestic animals  in  Cuba  dates  back  to  1891,  when  the 
totals  were  as  follows:  Cattle,  2,485.768;  horses, 
531,416;  mules,  43,309;  pigs,  570,194;  and  sheep, 
78.484.  In  the  raising  of  these  Santa  Clara  was  the 
most  prolific  province,  and  Santiago  de  Cuba  next  in 
order  so  far  as  horses  and  cattle  were  concerned. 
These   animals  to-day  have  practically   disappeared, 


AGRICULTURAL   PRODUCTIONS.        147 

the  three  years  of  insurrection,  during  which  Cubans 
and  Spaniards  aHke  freely  slaughtered  them  for  food, 
having  nearly  exhausted  the  supply.  Yet  the  pastures 
remain,  and  there  is  nothing  to  prevent  a  rapid  re- 
stocking of  the  island. 

Of  the  animals  raised  in  Cuba,  poultry  call  for  some 
attention,  since  these  are  kept  in  large  numbers,  not 
only  in  the  country  but  by  many  families  in  the  city, 
and  a  large  proportion  of  the  people  never  eat  any 
other  meat  than  poultry  and  v^ild  game.  There  is  a 
small  wild  pigeon  which  is  largely  snared  and  shot 
for  table  use,  and  ducks  and  other  water-fowl  abound. 
The  domestic  fowl  is  sold  at  a  cheap  rate,  but  is  small 
and  poor,  usually  very  tough,  from  being  killed  and 
eaten  within  the  same  hour. 

Bees  flourish  in  Cuba,  and  much  honey  and  wax 
are  used  and  exported.  The  honey  varies  greatly  in 
quality,  the  best  being  that  produced  on  the  cultivated 
uplands.  In  the  vicinity  of  the  sugar  plantations  the 
bees  feed  about  the  mills;  and  here  they  are  said  to 
prefer  the  by-product  of  rum  to  the  sugar  and  syrup, 
and  often  become  so  intoxicated  as  to  neglect  their 
usual  industry. 

Along  some  portions  of  the  coast  turtle  and  sponge 
fishing  are  active  industries.  Large  numbers  of 
turtles  are  taken  annually  on  the  coast  opposite  the 
Isle  of  Pines,  and  these  yield  tortoise-shell  of  the  best 
quality.  The  coast  opposite  the  old  Bahama  channel 
is  also  frequented  by  these  animals,  which  come  ashore 
to  deposit  their  eggs,  and  are  captured  by  turning 
them  on  their  backs,  they  being  unable  to  regain  their 
normal  position.  The  meat  is  eaten  in  the  vicinity 
and  the  shell  carefully  prepared  for  export.     Sponges 


148  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

are  also  taken  in  large  quantities,  the  fisheries  at  Cai- 
barien  yielding  an  annual  quantity  selling  at  from 
$300,000  to  $400,000,  while  those  at  Batabano 
yield  about  $600,000  annually.  The  work  is  crudely 
performed,  the  boats  being  manned  by  matricidados, 
or  former  seamen  of  the  Spanish  navy.  There  are  no 
reef  sponges  on  the  Cuban  coast,  but  the  finer  varieties 
of  sheep's  wool  and  velvet,  with  some  coarser  grades, 
are  common. 

As  regards  the  fishing  industry,  we  have  already 
spoken  of  the  great  variety  of  edible  fish  sold  in  the 
Cuban  markets.  They  are  caught  in  the  surrounding 
waters  and  in  those  of  the  Bahama  Islands,  and  some 
of  the  streams  are  abundantly  supplied;  so  that  it  is 
rare  to  sit  down  to  a  meal  in  Cuba  without  fish.  The 
oysters  have  the  property  of  growing  on  trees,  that 
is,  they  cling  to  the  twigs  of  the  mangroves.  They 
are  quite  small  and  have  the  coppery  taste  of  the 
European  oyster. 


VIIL  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE, 
CIGARS. 

If  it  be  asked,  What  are  the  manufactures  of  Cuba? 
it  might  almost  be  answered  there  are  none.  Tropical 
countries  nowhere  take  kindly  to  the  arts  of  manu- 
facture. Their  inhabitants  occupy  themselves  mainly 
in  stimulating  the  productive  energies  of  nature,  con- 
tent to  exchange  the  products  of  the  earth  for  the 
manufactured  articles  of  the  temperate  zones.  Only 
in  one  manufacture  is  any  energy  displayed  in  Cuba, 
that  of  converting  the  tobacco  of  the  country  into 
cigars  and  cigarettes  to  supply  the  great  and  in- 
creasing demand  of  Cuba  and  the  world.  As  for  the 
Cuban,  he  half  subsists  on  smoke;  the  weed  is  his  com- 
panion by  day  and  night,  and  whatever  else  is  neg- 
lected his  craving  for  the  narcotic  effects  of  this 
favorite  product  of  the  island  soil  must  be  satisfied. 

There  are  no  less  than  120  cigar  factories  in  Ha- 
vana of  considerable  importance  and  several  hundred 
smaller  concerns,  many  of  the  large  ones  being  very 
extensive  and  employing  over  400  workmen  each,  so 
that  a  considerable  portion  of  the  working  class  of 
the  city  is  thus  engaged.  Some  of  the  factories  are 
large  and  handsome  buildings,  and  contain  within 
themselves  all  the  requisites  for  the  handling  of  their 
product,  including  printing-presses  for  the  supply  of 
labels,  circulars,  and  the  designs  for  cigarette  paper, 

149 


I50  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

a  carpenter  shop  in  which  the  packing-boxes  and 
barrels  are  made,  and  other  departments,  all  of  which 
are  fitted  with  the  most  improved  machines. 

Though  these  establishments  were  nearly  all 
founded  by  Spaniards,  some  of  the  more  important 
of  them  have  fallen  into  the  hands  of  British  and 
German  capitalists,  the  list  of  which  is  said  to  have 
been  added  to  since  the  beginning  of  the  recent  war. 
Of  the  concerns  thus  controlled  by  foreign  capital  the 
most  important  is  the  Partagas,  whose  product  has 
a  world-wide  reputation.  This  is  now  in  the  hands 
of  a  London  company,  with  a  capital  of  about  $1,500,- 
000,  and  has  a  daily  output  of  about  35.000  cigars 
and  2,000,000  cigarettes.  In  addition  to  its  factories 
in  Havana,  it  owns  about  18,000  acres  of  the  best 
Vuelta  Abajo  tobacco  land.  Another  corporation 
known  throughout  the  world  is  that  of  Gustav  Bock, 
who  recently  interested  British  capital  in  his  enter- 
prise; a  company  being  formed  which  purchased  or 
leased  some  ten  of  the  larger  establishments  of  the 
city.  It  produces  an  enormous  quantity  of  goods. 
A  prominent  German  concern,  the  H.  Upmann  Com- 
pany, is  also  extensive  in  its  operations;  and  there  are 
numerous  smaller  German  and  French  establishments 
in  the  city. 

In  addition  to  the  enormous  consumption  in  the 
island  there  is  a  large  export  trade, — the  cigars  ex- 
ported in  1896  numbering  185,914.000.  It  must  not 
be  imagined,  however,  that  these  are  all  of  a  high 
grade,  since  not  only  does  the  product  of  Cuban  soil 
differ  considerably  in  quality,  but  much  tobacco  of 
foreign  growth  is  imported  and  rolled  into  so-called 
Cuban  cigars.      In  the  streets  of  Havana  itself   one 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     151 

may  find  himself  buying  and  smoking  a  cigar  whose 
visible  leaf  evidently  grew  in  Northern  soil. 

Though  tobacco  in  its  various  manufactured  forms 
constitutes  the  chief  article  of  Cuban  manufacture, 
there  is  some  activity  in  other  directions.  Carriage- 
making,  for  instance,  is  somewhat  extensively  carried 
on,  to  supply  the  large  number  of  victorias  and  other 
vehicles  in  use.  The  finer  carriages  are  usually 
brought  from  the  United  States.  The  business  of  the 
harness-maker  is  similarly  active.  Other  articles  of 
Cuban  production  include  shoes,  soap,  candles,  per- 
fumery, sweetmeats,  beer,  leather,  etc.,  but  in  none  of 
these  directions  is  any  special  activity  displayed. 

COMMERCE. 

A  glance  at  the  harbor  of  Havana,  in  years  of  peace 
and  prosperity,  yields  abundant  indication  of  the  ac- 
tivity of  Cuban  commerce,  a  large  portion  of  which 
passes  through  this  port.  On  entering  the  harbor 
one  finds  himself  in  a  busy  scene,  ships  of  all  nations 
lying  at  the  wharves  or  gliding  in  and  out  of  the  bay, 
while  a  fleet  of  small  boats  darts  swiftly  about,  carry- 
ing passengers  or  otherwise  engaged. 

Havana,  while  the  most  active,  is  but  one  of  the 
many  ports  with  which  commerce  is  conducted,  no 
other  island  or  coast  of  the  world  surpassing  Cuba  in 
its  abundance  of  fine  harbors,  most  of  which  are  purse- 
shaped  inlets  in  the  rocky  coast,  with  narrow  passages 
through  the  reef  rock.  But  admirable  as  they  are  in 
situation,  little  effort  to  improve  them  has  been  made, 
and  even  the  harbor  of  Havana  has  been  allowed  to 
fill  up  with  the  refuse  of  the  town. 

In  1894  the  tonnage  of  Havana  and  eight  other 


152  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

ports  amounted  to  3,538,539,  carried  in  3181  vessels. 
From  Havana  about  1200  vessels,  steam  and  sail,  clear 
annually  for  foreign  ports;  the  trade  with  the  United 
States  alone  amounting  to  about  1,000,000  tons  an- 
nually. There  has  been,  however,  very  little  com- 
merce with  the  other  West  Indian  islands,  or  with 
the  Spanish-American  countries  except  Mexico.  It 
is  said  that  even  the  Havana  cigar  is  not  to  be  found 
in  any  city  of  the  Caribbean  islands  except  those 
visited  by  European  steamers  which  touch  at  Havana 
on  their  way  to  other  ports. 

In  seeking  to  state  the  commerce  of  the  island,  we 
find  ourselves  in  something  of  a  dilemma.  During  the 
past  few  years  the  insurrection,  with  its  basic  principle 
of  destruction,  has  so  greatly  reduced  the  output  that 
all  figures  applying  to  these  years  are  misleading.  If 
we  go  back  to  earlier  years,  we  are  obliged  to  depend 
upon  Spanish  statistics,  which  are  far  from  reliable, 
and  find  ourselves  in  a  maze  of  conflicting  statements. 
And  it  must  also  be  taken  into  consideration  that  these 
figures  belong  to  a  past  age,  and  by  no  means  indicate 
the  commerce  the  island  is  likely  to  possess  under  its 
new  conditions.  There  will  very  probably  be  a  rapid 
and  extensive  development  in  business  conditions, 
under  which  all  the  productive  energies  of  Cuba  must 
be  greatly  stimulated  and  its  exports  and  imports 
largely  augmented.  With  these  remarks,  we  may  give 
some  of  the  details  of  Cuban  commerce  under  the  old 
regime. 

A  British  Foreign  Office  report  for  the  year  ending 
April,  1896,  gives  the  value  of  Cuban  exports  as 
$94,395,536:  imports,  $66,166,754.  Here  there  was 
an  apparent  balance  of  trade  of  more  than  $28,000,000 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     153 

in  favor  of  the  island;  but  this  was  more  than  con- 
sumed by  the  Spanish  government,  which  exacted 
some  $40,000,000  from  the  colony.  Complete  statis- 
tics of  the  trade  with  foreign  countries  are  not  to  be 
had,  but  figures  taken  from  United  States  consular 
reports  show  a  striking  discrimination  against  this 
country  in  favor  of  Spain  and  Great  Britain.  In  1896 
the  United  States  received  from  Cuba  goods  to  the 
value  of  $42,314,383,  for  which  there  was  returned  only 
$9,632,974.  These  figures  are  nearly  reversed  in  the 
case  of  Spain,  whose  exports  to  Cuba  were  $33,474,- 
680,  and  imports  from  that  islajid  $9,681,120.  The 
Cuban  exports  to  Great  Britain  were  $174,187;  im- 
ports, $5,843,892;  exports  to  Belgium,  $208,304;  im- 
ports, $1,089,239.  France,  on  the  contrary,  resembled 
the  United  States,  sending  Cuba  only  $424,600  worth 
of  goods,  and  receiving  in  return  goods  valued  at 

$3,338,900- 

The  great  balance  in  favor  of  Spain  was  due  to  the 
colonial  policy  of  that  country,  which  had  remained 
unchanged  from  the  eighteenth  century.  All  freedom 
of  commerce  with  Cuba  was  vigorously  checked  by 
the  aid  of  heavy  discriminating  duties  in  favor  of 
Spain,  which  were  never  less  than  forty  per  cent, 
and  usually  much  more.  Only  through  the  corrup- 
tion of  Cuban  custom-house  officials  had  foreign 
countries  any  chance  at  all  to  compete  with  Spain, 
whose  higher-priced  and  less  serviceable  goods  were 
forced  upon  the  Cubans  against  their  will.  A  marked 
example  of  the  state  of  afTairs  is  to  be  seen  in  the  fact 
that  in  sending  flour  from  New  York  to  Havana  it 
has  always  been  cheaper  to  send  it  first  to  Spain  and 
have  it  reshipped  from  there  than  to  send  it  direct. 


154  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

Tills  roundabout  policy  in  favor  of  Spain  will,  of 
course,  now  be  reversed,  to  the  great  benefit  alike  of 
American  shippers  and  Cuban  consumers. 

The  exports  from  the  United  States  to  Cuba  have 
long  been  largely  food  materials, — hog  products 
coming  first  and  flour  second.  As  regards  the  latter, 
the  true  figures  cannot  be  obtained,  since  probably 
twice  as  much  fiour  was  sent  to  Spain  for  reshipment 
as  was  sent  to  Cuba  direct.  With  the  new  conditions 
there  will  doubtless  be  a  large  increase  in  these  and 
others  of  the  food  products  of  the  United  States. 

The  third  material  on  the  list  of  exports  from  this 
country  was  dressed  lumber.  In  view  of  the  vast 
woodland  area  of  Cuba  and  the  high  economic  value 
of  many  of  its  trees,  this  is  not  likely  to  continue,  since 
wood-working  machinery,  with  which  Cuba  can  dress 
her  own  timber,  may  be  sent  instead.  A  similar 
change  is  likely  to  take  place  in  other  directions,  the 
two  countries  working  together  in  every  instance  in 
the  way  that  may  prove  most  advantageous.  We  give 
on  pages  155  and  156  a  tabulated  statement  of  im- 
ports and  exports  to  and  from  the  United  States  in 
1893  and  1897,  the  former  the  largest  year  since  1874, 
while  the  great  falling  ofif  in  the  latter  year  was  mainly 
a  result  of  the  insurrection. 

The  United  States  forms  the  great  market  for 
Cuban  sugar,  of  which  the  local  consumption  is  not 
more  than  50,000  tons,  while  in  1894  this  country  took 
956,524  tons  out  of  a  total  of  1,054,214  tons.  The  total 
amount  received  in  the  United  States  from  all  quar- 
ters during  that  year  was  1,625,960  tons.  The  leading 
shipping  ports  for  sugar  are  Havana,  Matanzas,  Car- 
denas, and  Cienfuegos,  which  do  not  dififer  materially 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     155 

in  their  output.  Sagua  and  Caibarien  also  ship  largely, 
while  Guantanamo,  Manzanillo,  and  Santiago  follow 
in  succession.  It  may  be  said,  in  conclusion  of  this 
topic,  that  the  cane-sugar  yield  of  the  world  for  1894- 
95  was  estimated  at  3,125,000  tons;  beet-sugar, 
4,975,000  tons;  total,  8,100,000  tons. 

Tobacco,  the  second  large  product  of  Cuba,  yields 
in  an  average  year,  as  already  stated,  560,000  bales,  of 
about  no  pounds  each,  of  which  half  is  of  Vuelta 
Abajo  growth.  Of  this  product  about  340,000  bales 
are  exported  as  leaf,  and  220,000  bales  are  used  by  the 
Havana  manufactories,  the  bulk  of  whose  output  is 
exported  as  cigars. 

Next  in  importance  among  Cuban  exports  to  the 
United  States  come  molasses  and  fruits,  and  at  a  lower 
level  are  cedar,  lumber,  and  iron  ore.  Among  the 
minor  articles  we  may  name  mahogany,  logwood, 
hides,  wax,  honey,  cocoa-nuts,  sponges,  and  cocoa-nut 
oil,  while  there  is  a  considerable  variety  of  products 
of  which  small  quantities  are  received, 

PRINCIPAL    IMPORTS    FROM   CUBA   INTO   THE   UNITED 

STATES. 
Articles. 
Free  of  Duty :  1893.  1897. 

Fruits  and  nuts |2, 347, 800  $154,422 

Sugar 60,637,631  .... 

Molasses 1,081,034  5)448 

Lumber 1,071,123  63,670 

Dutiable  : 

Tobacco,  unmanufactured    ,    .       8,940,058  2,306,067 

Tobacco,  manufactured     .    .    .       2,727,039  1,971,214 

Sugar 11,982,473 

Iron  ore 641,943  475,281 

Total ;?77,446,628        $16,958,575 


156  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

PRINCIPAL   EXPORTS    FROM  THE   UNITED   STATES   TO 
CUBA. 

Articles.  1893.  1897. 

Hog  products $5,401,022  $2,224,485 

Wheat  flour 2,821,577  564,638 

Dressed  lumber Ij095)928  286,387 

Coal 931.371  638,912 

Com 582,050  247,905 

Potatoes 554,153  331.553 

Mineral  oil 514,808  306,916 

Locomotives 418,776  20,638 

Builders'  hardware 395.964  49,386 

Beans  and  peas 392,962  276,635 

Steel  rails 326,654  14,650 

Boilers  and  parts  of  engines  .    .  322,384  35.578 

Wire 321,120  35,905 

Carriages  and  street  cars  .    .    .  316,045  3,755 

Passenger  and  freight  cars    .    .  271,571  9,202 

Saws  and  tools 243,544  34,686 

Household  furniture     ....  217,126  34,288 

Leather  goods 191,394  39,753 

Stationary  engines 130,652  1,189 

Total $15,449,101  $5,156,461 


FINANCES. 

The  total  value  of  agricultural  property  in  Cuba, 
with  its  appurtenances,  was  estimated  in  1862  at  $380,- 
554,527,  yielding  a  net  income  of  ten  per  cent.  The 
appurtenances  included  slaves,  valued  at  something 
over  $100,000,000.  Since  then,  in  consequence  of  the 
insurrection,  foreign  competition,  and  emancipation  of 
the  slaves,  there  has  been  a  shrinkage  in  value.  In 
1894  the  total  value  of  the  plantations  may  have  been 
$300,000,000.  To-day  it  is  considerably  less.  The 
revenue  yielded  by  the  island  has  varied  at  different 
times  and  under  different  circumstances.    During  the 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     157 

insurrection  of  1868-78  the  financial  burdens  laid 
on  the  people  were  very  severe,  the  average  annual 
revenue  exacted  being  $41,577,699.  In  the  period  be- 
tween 1878  and  1895  the  revenue  averaged  $33,400,- 
000.  This  heavy  exaction  from  a  population  of  1,600,- 
000,  made  up  of  customs  duties  and  direct  taxes,  was 
not  the  whole  the  Cubans  had  to  endure,  since  con- 
siderable sums  were  wrung  from  them  by  ofBcial  fraud 
and  forced  levies,  the  island  having  the  double  task  of 
feeding  the  Spanish  treasury  and  enriching  the  horde 
of  Spanish  oflfice-holders  who  filled  every  lucrative 
position  in  the  land. 

The  debt  of  Cuba — in  great  measure  composed  of 
moneys  spent  in  seeking  to  keep  the  islanders  in  sub- 
jection— amounted  in  the  summer  of  1897  to  the 
great  total  of  $396,500,000.  Since  that  date  the  war 
expenditures  of  Spain  have  been  considerable,  and  the 
present  debt  is  probably  not  less  than  $500,000,000,  a 
sum  surpassing  the  total  value  of  the  agricultural  and 
industrial  interests  of  the  island,  and  which,  if  assessed 
against  Cuba,  would  amount  to  about  $350  per  capita 
of  the  population,  a  far  larger  per  capita  charge  than 
the  debts  of  any  of  the  nations  of  Europe.  As,  how- 
ever, the  United  States  has  refused  to  assume  this 
debt  as  a  charge  on  Cuba,  and  as  the  Cubans  will  cer- 
tainly refuse  to  accept  it,  since  it  was  spent  in  efiforts 
to  subdue  them,  it  must  become  a  burden  upon  the 
already  debt-ridden  population  of  Spain. 

Cuba  has  never  had  a  currency  of  its  own,  its  mone- 
tary unit  being  the  Spanish  peso,  or  dollar,  estimated 
at  92.6  cents  in  nominal  value  in  United  States  cur- 
rency,— not  the  peseta,  worth  19.3  cents,  the  unit  in 
Spain.     The  circulation,  however,  is  a  varied  one,  con- 


158  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

sisting  of  Spanish,  French,  American,  and  Mexican 
coins,  all  of  which  pass  current.  Before  1892,  a  five- 
cent  silver  coin  was  the  smallest  in  circulation,  but 
since  then  smaller  copper  and  bronze  coins  have  been 
introduced.  American  and  British  gold  and  paper  are 
at  a  premium  above  the  Spanish  gold,  and  consider- 
ably so  above  its  silver,  the  result  being  a  confusing 
one  to  visitors  from  the  United  States.  The  difference 
has  been  taken  advantage  of  by  astute  dealers  in  the 
newly  occupied  cities,  and  a  revision  of  the  circulating 
medium  has  become  indispensable. 

The  Spanish  one-centen,  or  twenty-five-peseta,  gold 
cc'n,  of  $4.82  legal  value,  has  been  inflated  by  Spanish 
financial  methods  to  $5.30  in  Cuba,  and  the  French 
louis,  or  twenty-franc  piece,  from  $3.86  to  $4.24.  This 
premium  cannot  be  maintained  in  competition  with 
American  gold,  and  an  order  has  been  issued  by  the 
United  States  treasury  department  reducing  these 
coins  to  their  legal  value.  As  regards  the  silver  coin- 
age, the  Spanish  peso,  or  silver  dollar,  has  been  reduced 
to  sixty  cents  in  circulating  value,  and  the  smaller 
coins  in  proportion,  a  change  which  is  very  likely  to 
force  these  coins  back  to  Spain,  in  view  of  their  higher 
value  there.  This  reduction  in  the  value  of  silver  is 
likely  to  cause  some  temporary  difficulty  wnth  the 
laboring  population,  as  the  prevailing  rate  of  wages 
has  been  one  dollar  for  one  day's  work.  It  will  not  be 
easy  to  make  the  ignorant  wage-earners  comprehend 
the  higher  value  of  the  new  dollar. 

Cuba  has  long  been  inadequately  provided  wnth 
banking  facilities,  the  whole  island  possessing  but  two 
chartered  banks,  whose  head-quarters  are  in  Havana 
while  there  are  branches   in   the  other  large  cities. 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     159 

These  are  the  Banco  Espaiiol,  which  has  the  sole  right 
of  issuing  circulating  notes,  and  the  Banco  de  Comer- 
cio,  which  has  the  practical  control  of  the  main  rail- 
way system  of  the  island.  Both  of  these  have  at  times 
suspended  payment,  and  neither  enjoys  the  fullest 
public  confidence,  while  their  modes  of  operation  have 
not  favored  commercial  activity. 

There  is  not  a  bank  on  the  island  in  which  money 
can  be  placed  at  interest,  nor  a  single  savings-bank 
for  the  convenience  of  artisans;  and  banking,  as  it  is 
understood  in  the  United  States,  does  not  appear  to 
exist  in  Cuba.  The  nearest  approach  to  it  is  made  by 
a  few  large  business  houses,  which  do  a  legitimate 
private  banking  business,  while  the  "note  shaver"  and 
the  usurer  exist,  seriously  to  the  injury  of  those  to 
whom  financial  assistance  is  indispensable.  Nothing 
is  more  needed  in  the  island  than  a  progressive  and 
secure  banking  system,  ready  to  loan  money  at  reason- 
able rates  of  interest.  Institutions  of  this  kind  are 
absolutely  necessary  if  the  island  is  to  make  any  rapid 
recovery  from  its  existing  state  of  depression. 

THE  FUTURE  OUTLOOK. 

The  Cuba  of  the  past  and  the  Cuba  of  the  present 
and  future  are  two  unlike  countries.  Under  the 
Spanish  dominion,  severe  taxation,  trade  restrictions, 
official  fraud  and  peculation,  and  lack  of  energy  and 
enterprise  ruled  supreme.  Under  the  fostering  in- 
fluence of  the  United  States,  which  may  be  looked 
upon  as  assured  whatever  the  governmental  relations 
of  the  island  may  be,  these  unjust  exactions  and  im- 
pediments to  industrial  activity  must  largely  or  fully 
cease,   and    opportunities    for    enterprise    be   opened 


i6o  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

which  cannot  fail  to  be  of  great  advantage  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Cuba,  and,  reflectively,  to  those  of  the  United 
States.  Some  of  the  probable  directions  of  this  future 
progress  may  be  pointed  out. 

Agriculturally,  there  are  abundant  opportunities. 
The  cofifee  industry,  to  v^hich  the  eastern  end  of  the 
island  is  so  excellently  adapted,  is  likely  to  be  profit- 
ably revived,  its  present  depressed  condition  being  by 
no  means  a  necessity  of  the  situation.  Under  equal 
conditions,  the  cofTee  of  Cuba  can  safely  enter  into 
competition  with  that  of  Brazil  and  other  countries, 
it  only  needing  relief  from  official  exaction  and  intel- 
ligent and  economical  cultivation  to  regain  its  former 
standing. 

The  tobacco  crop  has  sufifered  little  and  can  be 
readily  restored,  wdiile  there  is  opportunity  for  a  con- 
siderable increase  of  the  quantity  grown.  It  is  stated 
that  a  syndicate  of  American  capitalists  has  been 
formed  with  the  purpose  of  controlling  the  whole  of 
this  industry,  not  only  in  the  fields,  but  in  the  Havana 
manufactories,  the  latter  with  the  co-operation  of  Gus- 
tav  Bock,  the  well-known  dealer  in  tobacco  and  cigars. 

The  sugar  culture  has  been  ruined  by  the  insurrec- 
tion, crop  after  crop  of  cane  having  been  burned,  and 
the  buildings  and  machinery  in  many  cases  destroyed. 
Large  capital  will  be  necessary  for  its  restoration,  and 
this  is  one  of  the  directions  in  which  American  capi- 
talists may  find  a  profitable  opening  for  investment. 
The  decline  in  prosperity  of  the  sugar  industry  of 
Cuba,  which  showed  itself  years  before  the  insurrec- 
tion, was  not  due  solely  to  competition  with  the 
bounty-supported  beet-sugar  of  Europe.  The  busi- 
ness has  been  wastefully  conducted  in  many  instances, 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     i6i 

the  non-resident  proprietors  being  ruined,  while  it  is 
affirmed  that  their  stewards  and  superintendents  have 
pocketed  enough  of  the  profits  to  build  the  modern 
city  of  Barcelona. 

Even  in  the  case  of  resident  proprietors,  the  strict 
economy  needed  in  modern  industries  has  rarely  been 
practised.  The  finest  machinery  has  been  bought  and 
railroad  tracks  laid  to  convey  the  cane  to  the  mills,  but 
this  covers  only  a  fourth  part  of  the  cost  of  sugar  pro- 
duction, three-fourths  being  expended  upon  the  field 
culture.  Here  there  are  large  opportunities  for  im- 
provement in  the  direction  of  more  careful  planting, 
cultivating,  and  cutting,  by  the  aid  of  which  the  pro- 
duct might  be  increased  one-third  at  the  same  cost. 
The  planting  and  weeding  are  now  nearly  all  done  by 
hand.  Harvesting  is  also  done  by  hand,  the  machete 
taking  the  place  of  the  cane-harvester  which  American 
inventive  genius  can  be  trusted  to  construct.  With  all 
the  leaks  of  the  past  stopped  up,  there  seems  no  suffi- 
cient reason  why  the  sugar  industry  may  not  again 
become  profitable. 

There  are  also  opportunities  for  intelligent  industry 
in  the  direction  of  dairying,  cattle-raising,  and  horse- 
breeding.  The  fertile  pasture  lands,  as  we  have  said, 
are  of  wide  extent,  and  with  more  attention  to  the 
fattening  of  cattle  for  market  a  larger  demand  might 
be  created  for  meat  products.  As  regards  the  minor 
agriculture, — that  of  the  truck,  fruit,  and  dairy  farms, 
— the  openings  for  development  are  abundant.  In 
addition  to  the  home  demand  from  an  increasing  city 
population,  the  United  States  offers  a  large  market 
for  winter  supply,  particularly  of  tropical  fruits. 

Cuba,   much   the   nearest   of  tropical   countries   to 


i62  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

our  shores,  is  capable  of  being  made  a  veritable  fruit 
garden,  being  specially  adapted  to  the  growing  of 
oranges,  pineapples,  bananas,  lemons,  and  other  de- 
sirable tropical  fruits.  These,  with  the  severe  Spanish 
tariff  restrictions  removed,  may  be  stimulated  to  an 
enormous  production.  The  orange  grows  everywhere 
without  cultivation,  but  to  compete  with  that  of 
Florida  careful  selection  and  improvement  will  be 
needed.  The  banana  is  similarly  universal,  and  the 
pineapple  finds  favorable  soil  in  the  western  section 
and  the  Isle  of  Pines.  The  lemons  of  the  mountain 
region  of  Santiago  de  Cuba  are  equal  to  those  of  Sicily, 
while  the  peach  and  nectarine  can  be  profitably  grown. 
In  short,  so  far  as  the  products  of  the  earth  are  con- 
cerned, Cuba  offers  a  rich  field  for  capital  and  enter- 
prise. 

Another  opening  for  American  energy  lies  in  the 
direction  of  public  improvements,  for  which  there  is 
everywhere  a  crying  need.  Here  there  is  likely  to  be 
a  generous  field  for  engineering  talent.  The  harbors 
need  to  be  dredged,  the  cities  properly  drained,  water- 
works built  for  many  of  them,  railways  constructed, 
highways  extended,  and  improvements  in  other  direc- 
tions made.  Spain  has  for  years  drained  the  island 
of  its  revenue,  ignoring  the  sadly  needed  public  works 
and  municipal  improvements,  and  Cuba  offers  to-day 
a  virgin  field  for  the  engineer. 

Common  roads  are  everywhere  required,  and  hun- 
dreds of  narrow  streams,  now  crossed  by  fords,  need 
bridging,  the  fords  being  impassable  in  the  rainy  sea- 
son. In  addition  to  the  steam-railways,  there  is  an 
excellent  field  for  electric  railways  in  the  cities  and 
their  suburbs.     Horse  railways  have  long  existed  in 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     163 

Havana  and  some  other  cities,  and  foreign  enterprise 
is  already  engaged  in  active  projects  for  their  exten- 
sion, in  which  the  electric  trolley  system  will  replace 
the  antiquated  horse-cars.  A  Canadian  and  New  York 
syndicate  has  purchased  these  railways  and  also  the 
ferry  line  to  Regla,  and  proposes  to  make  considerable 
improvements  in  both;  also  to  introduce  the  electric 
street  railway  and  electric  light  into  Cienfuegos. 

Other  opportunities  for  American  skill  and  capital 
lie  in  the  direction  of  supplying  new  machinery  to  the 
revived  sugar  estates,  of  water-works  for  the  cities, — 
few  of  which  are  well  supplied, — of  wharves  in  the 
harbors  and  the  dredging  of  their  channels,  of  develop- 
ing the  iron,  copper,  and  other  mining  industries,  and, 
most  pressing  of  all,  of. draining  the  towns,  whose 
present  sewers,  where  any  exist,  are  mere  disease 
breeders.  The  old  system  of  dumping  filth  in  the 
streets  was  safer  than  the  existing  unflushed  and 
abominable  drains,  and  to  these  is  no  doubt  due  much 
of  the  fever,  dysentery,  small-pox,  and  other  prevalent 
diseases.  These  rarely  appear  on  the  interior  estates, 
and  have  no  proper  abiding  place  in  the  cities.  Cor- 
rect sanitation  will  regenerate  the  island. 

The  question  of  labor  is  a  leading  one  in  considering 
the  industrial  development  of  Cuba.  The  war  and  the 
emancipation  of  the  slaves  have  completely  overturned 
the  old  labor  system  of  the  island,  and  a  thorough  re- 
adjustment is  needed.  The  negroes,  while  the  hardiest 
of  tropical  laborers,  are  unreliable,  and  prefer  city  life 
lo  work  on  the  plantations.  White  labor  will  need  to 
be  depended  upon  to  a  much  larger  extent  than  during" 
the  days  of  slavery.  But  additions  to  the  Cuban  and 
Spanish  stock  of  laborers  cannot  safely  be  made  from 


1^ 


i64  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  United  States,  unless  from  the  Gulf  region.  The 
men  of  the  North  could  not  stand  the  summer  climate 
except  at  large  sacrifice  of  life.  If  white  immigrants 
are  to  seek  Cuba  as  laborers,  they  should  come  from 
Southern  Europe,  and  of  these  there  is  an  abundant 
supply  which  can  acceptably  be  deflected  from  the 
United  States. 

For  Americans,  Cuba  offers  itself  specially  as  a  win- 
ter resort  for  health  or  pleasure.  While  its  climate  is 
ill  adapted  to  those  suffering  from  pulmonary  com- 
plaints, it  has  many  sanitary  advantages,  and  the  in- 
valids who  visit  its  shores  from  December  to  May  can 
scarcely  fail  of  relief  and  physical  aid.  Those  who 
have  in  view  merely  rest  and  recreation  will  find  here 
a  country  of  unsurpassed  geniality  of  climate,  pictur- 
esque scenery,  and  opportunities  for  enjoyment. 

To  the  United  States,  among  the  chief  advantages 
of  the  liberation  of  Cuba  will  be  a  commercial  one. 
Even  under  the  restrictions  of  the  Spanish  control,  our 
trade  with  the  island  was  large.  It  was  particularly 
so  during  the  years  when  reciprocity  in  trade  existed. 
These  restrictions  removed  it  must  greatly  increase, 
and  much  of  the  former  sum  of  imports  from  Spain 
will  undoubtedly  be  diverted  to  the  United  States. 
While  taking  more  from  Cuba  than  ever  before,  our 
exports  thither  must  be  largely  enhanced,  and  the 
sum  of  exports  and  imports  approximate  far  more 
closely  than  in  the  years  of  the  past. 


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SECTION  II. 
PORTO    RICO. 

•  •  • 

I.  HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

The  island  of  Porto  Rico  (Spanish,  Puerto  Rico)  was 
discovered  by  Columbus  on  his  second  voyage,  No- 
vember i6,  1493.  Three  days  later  he  landed  and  took 
possession  in  the  name  of  Spain.  In  1508,  Ponce  de 
Leon — the  romantic  Spaniard  who  afterwards  vainly 
sought  the  fountain  of  youth  in  Florida — led  an  expe- 
dition to  the  island,  subdued  the  aborigines,  and 
within  the  next  year  or  two  founded,  near  the  site  of 
the  present  capital,  a  village  which  he  named  Caparra. 
This,  which  still  exists  under  the  name  of  Pueblo 
Viejo  (old  town),  was  soon  abandoned  by  him,  and 
in  151 1  he  founded  the  city  of  San  Juan  Bautista,  since 
then  the  capital  of  the  island. 

The  natives,  of  Arawak  or  Carib  stock, — probably 
never  very  numerous, — suffered  the  usual  fate  of  the 
West  India  aborigines  under  Spanish  control,  being 
enslaved  and  quickly  in  great  part  annihilated.  No 
trace  of  them  now  remains,  though  there  are  people 
on  the  island  whose  hair  and  complexion  seem  to  indi- 
cate a  mixture  of  Indian  and  negro  blood. 

There  is  little  of  interest  in  the  early  history  of  the 
island.    Hurricanes,  a  Carib  invasion,  and  other  causes 

165 


i66  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

led  to  its  temporar)^  abandonment,  and  settlement  pro- 
ceeded so  slowly  that  in  1700  there  were  only  a  few 
small  towns,  the  people  being  thinly  scattered  over  the 
country.  Chief  among  its  troubles  were  attacks  by 
British  and  other  adventurers.  Sir  Francis  Drake,  the 
most  active  raider  of  the  Spanish  settlements  in  the 
New  World,  captured  and  sacked  the  capital  in  1595, 
an  exploit  which  was  repeated  three  years  afterwards 
by  the  Duke  of  Cumberland.  A  Dutch  navigator 
named  Baldwin  Heinrich  made  an  attack  on  the  Cas- 
tello  del  Morro  in  161 5,  but  lost  his  life  in  the  attempt. 
Later  attacks  were  equally  unsuccessful.  A  large 
British  fleet  which  assailed  the  town  in  1698  was  in 
great  part  destroyed  by  a  hurricane;  an  unsuccessful 
attack  was  made  by  Dutch  and  British  fleets  in  1702, 
— though  on  this  occasion  a  hurricane  destroyed  the 
Porto  Rican  fleet;  and  in  1797  Abercromby  besieged 
the  place  in  vain. 

Porto  Rico,  however,  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
highly  regarded  by  Spain,  it  being  used  as  a  penal 
settlement,  and  its  inhabitants  largely  composed  of 
convicts  sentenced  to  hard  labor  and  their  military 
guard.  This  state  of  affairs  has  left  its  mark  on  the 
labor  conditions  of  the  island.  Of  the  convicts,  many 
succumbed  to  the  severity  of  the  tropical  climate; 
while  those  who  survived  and  received  their  freedom 
were  thoroughly  seasoned  to  the  island  conditions,  and 
were  obliged  to  continue  their  labors  in  the  field  in 
order  to  live.  The  same  was  the  case  with  their  de- 
scendants: the  result  being  that  the  soil  of  Porto  Rico 
is  in  considerable  measure  cultivated  and  its  sugar 
made  by  whites.  This  enforced  object  lesson  has  the 
one  merit  of  proving  that  white  labor  can  be  success- 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  167 

fully  employed  in  the  West  India  sugar  industry.  But 
the  penal  conditions  have  not  been  advantageous  to 
the  character  of  the  succeeding  free  population,  the 
great  mass  of  whom  continue  in  the  state  of  besotted 
ignorance  naturally  resulting  from  the  judicial  servi- 
tude of  many  of  their  ancestors. 

Spain  spent  no  money  directly  upon  the  island, 
whose  needs  were  neglected,  and  the  expenses  of  its 
administration  met  by  remittances  from  Mexico. 
These  were  cut  off  on  the  outbreak  of  rebellion  in  the 
latter  country  in  1810,  and  the  finances  of  the  island 
fell  into  so  desperate  a  condition  that  the  mother- 
country  was  obliged  to  come  to  its  aid.  Hitherto  but 
little  attention  had  been  paid  to  the  island  by  Spain, 
and,  as  it  was  too  poor  to  attract  a  horde  of  peculating 
officials  like  that  which  descended  upon  Cuba,  it  suf- 
fered little  from  misgovernment,  and  its  people  re- 
mained loyal  to  Spain. 

In  181 5  a  decree  was  published  in  which  the  mother- 
country  showed  an  unusual  degree  of  liberality  and 
political  wisdom.  As  an  inducement  to  colonists,  the 
most  favorable  terms  for  settlement  were  offered, 
lands  being  given  them  and  freedom  from  direct  taxes 
granted.  The  tithes  and  some  other  taxes  were  re- 
mitted for  a  term  of  years,  including  the  exportation 
duties,  under  whose  weight  the  other  Spanish  settle- 
ments so  severely  suffered.  This  decree,  while  very 
beneficial  to  the  Porto  Rican  people,  had  one  ill  effect. 
Under  its  influence,  slave  labor  was  introduced.  Lack 
of  capital  and  the  poverty  and  indolence  of  the  pre- 
vious settlers  had  stood  in  the  way  of  an  earlier  use 
of  slaves,  the  result  being  that  the  negro  population 
of  Porto  Rico  is  comparatively  small. 


i68  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  decree  mentioned  brought  prosperity  to  Porto 
Rico,  and  there  began  an  advance  in  wealth  and  popu- 
lation unequalled  in  degree  in  any  other  of  the  West 
India  islands.  It  was  added  to  by  the  insurrections  in 
San  Domingo  and  on  the  main-land,  which  drove  to 
Porto  Rico  many  Spanish  capitalists  of  thorough  busi- 
ness training  and  well  adapted  to  develop  the  interests 
of  the  island. 

Yet  the  insurrectionary  tendency  in  Spanish 
America  had  its  effect  upon  Porto  Rico,  where  in  1820 
an  insurrection  broke  out  and  a  declaration  of  inde- 
pendence was  made.  Fighting  continued  for  three 
years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the  supremacy  of  Spain 
was  completely  re-established.  A  later  insurrection — 
that  of  Cuba  in  1868 — gave  rise  to  similar  rebellious 
manifestations;  the  efifect  being  a  measure  of  reform 
on  the  part  of  Spain, — Porto  Rico  in  1870  ceasing  to 
be  a  colony  and  becoming  a  province  of  Spain.  Its 
people  w^ere  given  representation  in  the  Cortes  by 
delegates  elected  by  universal  suffrage,  and  acquired 
the  rights  of  Spanish  citizenship.  In  1873  slavery  was 
abolished,  and  all  the  negro  population  became  free. 

As  regards  the  provincial  administration,  little  fa- 
vorable to  it  can  be  said.  The  governor-general  re- 
tained his  autocratic  powers  and  continued  in  military 
control,  while  under  him  affairs  were  administered  by 
a  Spanish  oligarchy,  like  that  existing  in  colonial  days. 
In  1897,  when  autonomy  was  offered  to  Cuba,  a  simi- 
lar system  was  introduced  in  Porto  Rico, — a  House 
of  Representatives  being  elected,  a  prime  minister 
chosen,  and  all  the  forms  of  a  home  government  es- 
tablished, nothing  being  wanting  but  the  fact  of  actual 
home  rule.     Tranquil  as  the  people  appeared  under 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  169 

Spanish  domination,  and  prosperous  as  they  had  be- 
come, there  would  seem  to  have  existed  a  current  of 
discontent  analogous  to  that  in  Cuba,  if  we  may  judge 
from  the  warm  welcome  which  they  gave  the  Ameri- 
can soldiers  in  1898. 

On  the  25th  of  July  of  the  year  mentioned  the  trans- 
ports bearing  the  American  army  under  General 
Miles  entered  the  harbor  of  Guanica,  in  the  south- 
western section  of  the  island,  and  the  village  of  that 
name  was  taken  possession  of  by  United  States  troops. 
Two  days  afterwards  the  harbor  of  the  port  of  Ponce 
was  entered.  Here,  instead  of  the  expected  resistance, 
the  Americans  were  received  with  wild  enthusiasm  by 
the  people,  who  fraternized  with  the  soldiers  and 
loudly  cheered  the  American  flag. 

A  similar  enthusiasm  was  shown  in  the  city  of 
Ponce,  and  in  other  places  occupied  by  the  troops; 
the  demand  of  the  people  for  the  stars  and  stripes 
being  so  great  that  the  stock  of  flags  was  exhausted 
and  General  Miles  cabled  home  for  more.  This  flat- 
tering reception  continued  as  the  troops  advanced 
from  point  to  point,  the  Americans  everywhere  re- 
ceiving the  warmest  of  welcomes  from  the  people. 

The  Spanish  opposition  was  nowhere  strong,  though 
it  seemed  probable  that  a  vigorous  resistance  would 
be  made  at  Aibonito,  a  strongly  fortified  mountain 
position  in  the  centre  of  the  island.  But  before  this 
stronghold  was  reached,  the  movement  of  invasion 
came  to  an  end,  a  protocol  of  peace  being  signed  at 
Washington  on  August  12,  the  news  of  which  reached 
the  front  in  Porto  Rico  on  the  13th.  Tn  the  days  that 
succeeded,  the  feeling  of  the  islanders  towards  Spain 
was  indicated  by  violence  on  the  part  of  some  of  them 


lyo  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

towards  the  Spanish  residents,  many  of  whom  ap- 
pealed to  the  Americans  for  protection;  while  the 
town  of  Cota  was  burned  and  its  Spanish  citizens  were 
forced  to  flee  for  their  lives.  This  feeling  may  in  a 
measure  be  accounted  for  by  the  recent  discovery  that 
the  laborers  on  the  large  sugar  plantation  had  been 
kept  in  a  state  of  peonage,  being  paid  but  a  pittance 
for  their  labor  and  forced  to  buy  at  the  worst  kind  of 
company  store,  which  gave  short  weight  in  every- 
thing. None  of  the  pound  packages  of  rice,  for  in- 
stance, weighed  more  than  three-fourths  of  a  pound. 

By  the  terms  of  the  peace  protocol  the  island  of 
Porto  Rico  was  to  be  ceded  by  Spain  to  the  United 
States.  A  commission  was  appointed  on  the  part  of 
both  governments  to  arrange  for  its  evacuation  by 
the  Spanish  troops,  and  on  the  i8th  of  October,  1898, 
the  American  flag  was  raised  over  San  Juan,  and  the 
island  finally  passed  out  of  the  possession  o.f  Spain. 

As  the  stars  and  stripes  at  the  hour  of  twelve  rose 
to  the  top  of  the  flag-pole  over  the  governor's  palace 
and  unfolded  in  the  air,  the  throng  of  towns-people, 
who  had  waited  the  event  in  deep  silence,  bared  their 
heads  and  broke  into  cheers.  Salutes  were  fired  from 
the  forts,  handshaking  and  fraternization  of  soldiers 
and  citizens  followed,  and  in  a  burst  of  enthusiasm  the 
island  of  Porto  Rico,  for  nearly  four  centuries  a  colony 
of  Spain,  passed  under  the  dominion  of  the  United 
States,  and  entered  upon  a  new  phase  of  existence  as 
a  component  part  of  the  great  free  republic  of  the 
West. 


n.  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS. 

SIZE  AND  SITUATION. 

The  island  of  Porto  Rico  is  of  minor  importance  in 
dimensions  as  compared  with  that  of  Cuba,  having  less 
than  a  twelfth  of  its  area,  though  it  has  six  times  its 
density  of  population.  It  lies  about  500  miles  to  the 
eastward  of  Cuba,  the  large  island  of  Hayti  inter- 
vening, between  which  and  Porto  Rico  flows  the 
seventy  miles  wide  ocean  channel  known  as  the  Mona 
Passage.  The  island  lies  farther  south  than  Cuba, 
being  bounded  by  the  parallels  of  17°  50'  and  18°  30' 
of  north  latitude.  Its  east  and  west  boundaries  are  re- 
spectively 65°  35'  and  ^'j°  10'  west  longitude;  and  it 
has  an  area,  as  at  present  estimated,  of  3668  square 
miles,  somewhat  less  than  that  of  Jamaica.  As  com- 
pared with  the  States  of  the  American  Union,  its  area 
is  a  fourth  less  than  that  of  Connecticut  and  less  than 
half  that  of  New  Jersey. 

Porto  Rico  has  been  spoken  of  by  one  writer  as  the 
only  known  island  in  the  shape  of  a  brick;  it  forming 
a  fairly  regular  parallelogram,  nearly  three  times  as 
long  as  it  is  wide,  the  sides  extending  nearly  due  east 
and  west,  and  the  ends  irregularly  north  and  south. 
The  north  and  south  coasts  are  indented  somewhat 
like  the  teeth  of  a  saw.  The  greatest  length,  from 
east  to  west,  is  estimated  at  108  miles,  and  breadth 
thirty-seven  miles,  though  no  very  accurate  measure- 
ments exist.  The  coast  line  is  about  360  miles  in 
length. 

171 


172  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

MOUNTAINS  AND  PLAINS. 

Throughout  the  length  of  the  island,  from  east  to 
west,  extends  a  mountain  range,  of  about  1800  feet  in 
average  height.  Its  slopes  are  so  situated  that  the 
streams  flowing  north  are  much  longer  than  those 
flowing  south.  The  uplands  occur  in  masses  and 
ridges,  presenting  no  clear  arrangement  in  their 
general  disposition;  the  chief  range  lying  near  the 
southern  coast  and  ramifying  westward  into  several 
branches,  which  end  in  highlands  on  the  western 
shores.  From  near  San  German,  in  the  southwest, 
the  hill  country  extends  to  the  northeast  corner  of 
the  island,  reaching  its  highest  altitude  in  the  Sierra 
Luquillo,  in  the  east,  where  the  Yunque  peak  is  3609 
feet  high.  These  mountains  extend  laterally  towards 
the  south  under  the  title  of  the  Sierra  de  Cayey. 
Farther  west  various  names  are  given  to  the  ramifi- 
cations of  the  upland  system,  there  being  a  ridge,  with 
summits  of  considerable  altitude,  near  San  German, 
known  as  the  Tetas  de  Montero. 

The  forests,  which  probably  at  one  time  covered  the 
entire  island,  have  been  reduced  until  they  are  now 
restricted  to  the  higher  portions  of  the  sierras,  where 
they  play  their  part  in  the  control  of  the  abundant 
water-supply.  The  uplands  slope  downward  in  gently 
rolling  divides,  or  terraces,  sinking,  as  they  approach 
the  coast,  into  wide  and  well-watered  plains,  beautiful 
in  aspect,  and  largely  devoid  of  the  fever-breeding 
swamps  which  haunt  the  Cuban  coast.  Between  the 
hills  lie  valley  lands  of  remarkable  richness,  capable 
of  yielding  astonishing  crops.  As  a  rule,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  island  consists  almost  entirely  of  moun- 
tains and  their  sloping  descents. 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  173 

In  its  general  appearance  the  island  is  picturesque 
and  beautiful;  its  fertile  and  verdant  plains,  rolling 
hills,  numerous  streams,  and  variety  of  vegetation  pro- 
ducing many  engaging  landscape  effects.  In  the 
words  of  one  of  its  admirers,  it  is  "  one  of  the  most 
lovely  of  all  those  regions  of  loveliness  which  are 
washed  by  the  Caribbean  Sea ;  even  in  that  archipelago 
it  is  distinguished  by  the  luxuriance  of  its  vegetation 
and  the  soft  variety  of  its  scenery." 

RIVERS  AND  LAKES. 

Porto  Rico  is  exceptionally  well  watered,  it  being 
credited  with  the  large  number  of  1300  streams,  of 
which  forty-six  are  classed  as  rivers,  the  remainder 
being  minor  water-courses.  Some  of  the  rivers  are 
over  sixty  miles  long,  and  several  of  those  of  the  north 
have  been  given  the  grandiloquent  name  of  Rio 
Grande.  The  northeast  trade-winds,  which  form  the" 
prevaiHng  air  currents,  part  with  most  of  their  moist- 
ure in  the  northern  hill-slopes;  the  result  being  that 
the  lowlands  of  this  region  sometimes  receive  an  ex- 
cess of  rain,  and  are  intersected  by  numerous  rivers, 
perennial  in  their  flow.  On  the  other  hand,  severe 
and  long-continued  droughts  occur  in  the  south,  where 
frequently  scarcely  any  rain  falls  for  months.  Arti- 
ficial irrigation  is  here  necessary,  and  opportunity  for 
it  appears  to  exist  in  the  statement  that  water  may 
everywhere  be  found  within  half  a  yard  of  the  surface. 
Yet,  so  far,  irrigation  has  been  carried  on  with  little 
system  or  co-operation. 

The  rivers  reach  the  coast  at  right  angles  on  all  the 
sides  of  the  island,  the  more  important  of  them  being 
the  Loiza  or  Rio  Grande,  Bavamon,  Plata,  Cibuco, 


174  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Manati,  Arecibo,  Camuy,  and  Guajataca,  flowing 
northward;  the  Portuges,  Jacaguas,  Descalabrado. 
Coamo,  Guamani,  and  Guayanes,  which  flow  to  the 
south;  the  Culebrinas,  Anasco,  Guanajibo,  and  Maya- 
guez,  emptying  in  the  Mona  Passage  at  the  west,  and 
the  Humacao,  Naguabo,  and  Fajardo,  seeking  the 
waters  of  the  east.  Some  of  these  are  navigable  for  six 
to  ten  miles  for  small  vessels,  though  bars  at  their 
mouths  seriously  obstruct  navigation. 

There  are  eight  lakes,  all  small,  including  the  north- 
ern ones  of  Martinpifia,  Tortuguero,  Pinofies,  and 
Cano  Tiburones;  the  southern,  of  Flamencos,  Cien- 
aga,  and  Guanica;  and  Albufera  de  Joyuda,  on  the 
east.  Towards  the  southwest  there  are  swampy  tracts 
of  coast,  but  the  islanders  are  fortunate  in  the  absence 
of  the  stagnant  pools  which  so  often  vitiate  tropical 
atmospheres,  but  w-hich  here  rarely  occur.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  numerous  streams  offer  exceptional 
advantages  in  the  way  of  irrigation  and  water-power. 

ISLANDS. 

The  political  organization  of  Porto  Rico  embraces 
three  small  neighboring  islands,  that  of  Mona  on  the 
west,  and  those  of  Culebra  and  \'ieques  on  the  east. 
Mona  gives  its  name  to  the  broad  channel  between 
Porto  Rico  and  Hayti,  and  is  precipitous  in  aspect, 
perpendicular  white  cliffs,  about  170  feet  high,  com- 
posing its  shores.  These  clififs  are  full  of  holes  and 
contain  many  caves.  The  bold  headland  on  the  west 
is  topped  by  a  huge  overhanging  rock,  named  by 
seamen,  Caigo-o-no-caigo  ("Shall  I  fall  or  not?"). 
Mona  signifies  "  Monkey,"  and  near  by  is  an  islet 
named  Monito,  or  "  Little  Monkey." 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  175 

Vieques  and  Culebra,  in  the  channel  between  Porto 
Rico  and  the  Virgin  Islands,  are  known  as  the  Islas 
de  Paseje.  Culebra  is  about  six  miles  long  by  three 
wide,  and  has  500  inhabitants,  who  are  principally  en- 
gaged in  raising  small  fruits.  Vieques,  or  Crab  Island, 
the  larger  of  the  two,  is  about  thirteen  miles  from 
Porto  Rico;  its  dimensions  are  twenty-one  miles  by 
six,  and  a  chain  of  mountains  runs  through  its  length. 
Almost  all  the  fruits  and  vegetables  of  the  West  Indies 
can  be  grown  here,  the  land  being  very  fertile.  It  has 
a  population  of  about  6000,  and  a  healthful  climate 
that  renders  it  secure  from  contagious  diseases.  There 
are  several  ports,  including  Isabel  Segunda  on  the 
north  and  Punta  Arenas  on  the  south.  These  islands 
constitute  part  of  the  new  acquisitions  of  the  United 
States,  they  having  formed  part  of  the  Porto  Rican 
dominion  of  Spain. 

HARBORS. 

The  commerce  of  Porto  Rico  is  confined  to  a  few 
harbors,  of  which  the  most  important  are  those  of 
San  Juan  and  Ponce.  The  entrance  to  the  former  is 
a  narrow  channel  with  rocky  bottom,  the  entering  ves- 
sels passing  so  near  the  bordering  clifTs  that  it  is 
almost  possible  to  leap  ashore  from  their  decks.  In 
the  winter  months  this  entrance  becomes  difficult  and 
dangerous  during  the  prevalence  of  a  norther,  when 
the  channel  is  churned  into  a  seething  and  foaming 
mass  of  waves,  into  which  sailing-vessels  can  venture 
only  at  great  risk,  and  which  at  times  detain  in  harbor 
large  steamers. 

The  entrance  bluflf  passed,  there  opens  a  broad  and 
beautiful  bay,  constituting  one  of  the  finest  harbors  in 


176  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  West  Indies.  Of  recent  years,  the  channel  has 
been  widened  and  deepened  until  now  it  has  a  depth 
of  twenty-nine  and  a  half  feet.  Dredging  has  also  im- 
proved the  harbor,  the  depth  at  the  wharves,  formerly 
from  ten  to  fourteen  feet,  being  now  more  than  twenty- 
two  feet. 

Playa,  the  seaport  of  Ponce,  has  a  spacious  and  ex- 
cellent harbor,  capable  of  receiving  and  sheltering 
vessels  of  twenty-five  feet  draught.  Here  the  Ameri- 
can flleet  lay  during  the  invasion  of  the  island  by  Gen- 
eral Miles,  after  first  entering  the  fine  bay  of  Guanica, 
on  the  southwest  coast.  The  latter  is  an  excellent 
haven,  but  its  usefulness  is  vitiated  by  the  marsh  lands 
adjoining.  On  the  west  coast  are  the  harbors  of  Cabo 
Rojo  and  Mayaguez,  the  latter  accessible  only  to  ves- 
sels of  less  than  sixteen  feet  draught.  The  bay  of 
Cabo  Rojo  is  nearly  round,  over  three  miles  wide  and 
sixteen  feet  deep,  with  good  anchorage.  Its  entrance 
is  by  a  narrow  channel  of  some  fifteen  feet  in  depth. 
Aguadilla,  in  the  northwest,  has  a  good  shipping  trade 
in  agricultural  products;  it  possessing  a  deep  and  spa- 
cious bay,  well  sheltered  from  the  trade-winds,  though 
not  safe  in  case  of  north  or  southwest  winds. 

The  harbor  of  Arecibo,  on  the  north  coast,  is  simply 
an  open  roadstead,  exposed  to  the  full  force  of  the 
ocean  weaves,  while  close  in  shore,  on  one  side,  are 
dangerous  reefs.  In  loading,  goods  are  taken  in  flat- 
bottomed  boats  over  the  river  bar,  thence  transferred 
to  lighters,  and  finally  to  the  vessel  to  be  freighted. 
Yet,  despite  these  disadvantages,  the  town  has  a  large 
shipping  trade. 

On  the  east  coast  are  the  harbors  of  Fajardo,  Hu- 
macao,  and  Naguabo,  the  first  alone  being  safe  during 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  177 

northers.  On  the  southeast  are  the  small  ports  of 
Salinas  and  Arroyo,  the  latter  the  port  of  Guayama, 
with  a  considerable  trade  in  sugar.  There  are  several 
other  small  harbors  of  minor  importance,  including 
those  on  Viequez  Island.  With  the  exception  of  San 
Juan,  the  harbors  of  the  island  have  been  permitted  to 
silt  up,  without  effort  at  prevention,  much  to  the  re- 
duction of  their  importance.  As  those  of  the  north 
coast  are  injuriously  afifected  by  the  northers  in  winter, 
so  during  the  rainy  season  strong  southerly  winds 
often  affect  those  of  the  south,  causing  the  sea  to  break 
with  great  violence  upon  the  coast. 

GEOLOGY. 

Little  has  yet  been  done  in  the  way  of  geological 
exploration  of  Porto  Rico,  the  only  observations  of 
importance  being  those  of  the  Swedish  geologist,  P. 
T.  Cleve.  He  found  on  the  northern  coast  evidences 
of  a  very  thick  series  of  limestone  strata,  which  had 
been  denuded  and  cut  through  by  streams,  leaving 
their  remnants  as  detached  limestone  hills.  These  dip 
downward  to  the  sea  at  a  very  gradual  inclination.  As 
in  the  Antilles  generally,  the  high  mountains  are  cov- 
ered at  their  summits  with  limestone,  yellowish  white 
in  color  and  very  hard,  except  near  San  Juan,  where  it 
is  soft.  The  fossils  found  in  this  rock  assimilate  it  in 
age  with  the  tertiary  limestones  of  the  other  Antilles. 

These  limestone  rocks  rest  on  an  older  formation  of 
conglomerates  and  metamorphic  rock,  closely  resem- 
bling the  basic  rocks  of  the  hills  of  Jamaica  and  of  the 
Virgin  Islands.  The  limestone  cover  is  very  probably 
of  coral  formation,  representing  an  elevated  reef;  and 
coral  animals  are  still  actively  at  work  building  new 

12 


178  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

reefs  along  the  south  coast  of  the  island,  about  four 
miles  from  shore. 

In  Porto  Rico,  as  in  Cuba,  there  are  many  caves  in 
the  limestone  formation,  including  the  grand  cavern 
of  Pajita  Inlares  and  the  caves  of  Aguas-Buenas  and 
Muertos.  There  are  also  numerous  thermal  and 
mineral  springs,  including  those  of  Coama,  Quintana, 
and  various  others. 

CLIMATE. 

The  climate  of  Porto  Rico  has  the  warmth  accord- 
ant with  its  tropical  situation,  but  enjoys  the  reputa- 
tion of  being  more  healthful  and  agreeable  than  that 
of  any  other  island  of  the  group  of  the  Antilles.  The 
mean  temperature  is  about  80°  F. ;  the  temperature  of 
San  Juan,  as  indicated  by  twenty  years  of  observation, 
averaging  78.9°.  The  highest  temperature  reached 
during  this  period — on  three  occasions  only — was  99° ; 
the  lowest  57.2°.  Usually,  the  midday  heat  in  the 
warmer  months  reaches  88°,  the  temperature  sinking 
to  80°  during  the  night.  In  the  cooler  period,  the 
morning  temperature  may  be  70°,  sometimes  sinking 
to  60°.  The  temperature,  therefore,  varies  little 
throughout  the  year,  and  during  the  warmest  season 
the  heats  are  tempered  daily  by  a  cooling  north  breeze. 

In  the  highland  region  of  the  interior  the  weather 
is  cooler,  and  sometimes  the  night  chill  becomes  un- 
pleasant. It  is  never  cool  enough  for  snow,  however, 
and  hail  is  a  rare  phenomenon.  The  unpleasant  land 
winds,  so  constant  at  night  in  the  other  Antilles,  are 
rarely  felt  here.  Of  the  towns  of  the  island,  those  en- 
joying the  most  temperate  climate  are  the  inland  ones 
of  Aibonito,  Adjuntas,  Cayey,  Lares,  Maricao,  and 
Utuado,  situated  in  the  region  of  the  mountains.    As 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  179 

in  the  other  Antilles,  the  warmest  weather  occurs  in 
June,  July,  August,  and  September;  the  coolest  in  the 
three  winter  months. 

The  mean  monthly  temperature  of  Porto  Rico  varies 
no  more  than  six  degrees,  and  the  extreme  limits 
are  only  forty  degrees,  perpetual  summer  prevailing. 
During  the  rainy  season,  tropical  hurricanes  are  not 
infrequent;  and  at  times  these  have  been  very  violent 
and  destructive.  There  is  an  average  annual  rainfall 
of  59.5  inches;  the  driest  season  being  from  December 
to  March,  the  wettest  month  November,  with  a  rain- 
fall of  7.6  inches.  Even  during  the  "  dry  season"  there 
is  sufficient  rain  for  the  needs  of  vegetation. 

During  the  summer  months  rain  often  falls  in  abun- 
dant showers,  attended  by  strong  winds.  The  fall  is 
usually  between  noon  and  four  p.m.,  a  clear  and 
beautiful  sunset  following.  The  true  rainy  season 
begins  in  August  and  continues  into  December.  As 
October  nears  its  end,  east  and  north  winds  set  in, 
heavy  downpours  of  rain  attending  the  former,  gentle 
showers  the  latter.  To  the  abundant  rainfall  are  due 
the  multiplicity  of  streams  and  the  luxuriance  of  the 
vegetation  of  the  north,  the  fields  being  often  inun- 
dated and  extensive  lagoons  formed.  But  the  rain- 
bearing  winds  are  usually  drained  of  their  moisture 
by  the  central  mountain  ridge,  south  of  which  little 
rain  falls,  the  droughts  continuing  sometimes  for 
months. 

Porto  Rico,  despite  the  fact  that  its  climate  closely 
resembles  that  of  the  other  Antilles,  enjoys  a  greater 
immunity  from  disease  than  the  neighboring  islands, 
its  mortality  not  exceeding  that  of  some  of  the 
healthiest  countries  of  Europe.    The  fevers  and  dysen- 


i8o  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

tery  of  the  tropics  are  common,  as  also  pulmonary 
troubles;  but  yellow-fever  rarely  becomes  serious.  It 
visits  the  coast  cities,  but  mostly  in  individual  cases, 
and  gains  headway  only  in  certain  years  wdien  intense 
heat  prevails.  But  in  all  cases  the  natives  are  largely 
exempt,  the  victims  being  unacclimated  visitors.  With 
cleanliness  and  proper  sewerage,  now  sadly  wanting, 
its  occurrence  would  probably  cease. 

On  the  whole,  so  far  as  climate  and  healthfulness 
are  concerned,  Porto  Rico  promises  to  be  a  more  de- 
sirable addition  to  the  United  States  than  any  of  its 
sister  islands;  the  best  time  to  visit  it  being  in  the 
drier  and  cooler  months  between  December  and  May. 
The  temperature  of  summer  tends  to  produce  debili- 
tating effects,  and  those  w^ho  have  been  ill  remain 
weak,  not  regaining  their  strength  until  removed  to 
the  mountains  or  the  north.  The  inundation  of  the 
earth  during  the  rainy  season  is  not  conducive  to 
health.  But,  as  a  recent  visitor  says,  ''  Taking  the 
climate  all  in  all,  it  is  not  unhealthy:  and  there  is  no 
more  danger  of  fever  or  sickness  in  Porto  Rico  than 
in  the  State  of  Pennsylvania,  if  a  person  takes  proper 
care  of  himself  and  does  not  at  first  become  over- 
fatigued." 


III.  NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS. 

PLANT  LIFE. 

Though  no  obstruction  has  been  placed  in  the  way 
of  the  scientific  visitor  to  Porto  Rico,  but  Httle  note 
of  its  conditions  and  productions  has  been  made.  Its 
geology  is  not  well  known,  its  area  is  merely  an  esti- 
mate, and  its  flora  and  fauna  await  systematic  study. 
This  is  not  in  consequence  of  any  dififiiculties  in  ex- 
ploration, but  through  seeming  lack  of  interest,  and 
the  fact  that  Porto  Rico  lies  out  of  the  usual  route  of 
travel.  The  beauty  of  the  island  vegetation  has  fre- 
quently been  remarked,  and  the  variety  and  dimen- 
sions of  its  trees  noted,  but  a  full  exploration  is  still 
wanting.  Primeval  forests,  which  once  extended  over 
the  whole  island,  still  cover  the  higher  elevations,  re- 
sembling in  character  those  of  the  other  Antilles,  yet 
with  a  remarkable  absence  of  the  epiphytes,  or  air 
plants,  which  usually  flourish  in  tropical  forests.  This 
is  not  due  to  any  lack  of  moisture;  yet  of  this  class  of 
plants  there  are  to  be  found  only  a  few  bromeliads 
and  a  stray  example  of  the  orchid  family. 

Baron  Eggers,  who  visited  the  Sierra  Luquillo  in 

1883,  and  made  what  seems  the  only  investigation  of 

the  forest  vegetation,  found  there  only  a  single  species 

of  palm,  growing  at  high  altitudes.     There  were  two 

species  of  tree-ferns,  and  other  trees  of  much  beauty 

and  utility.      The  ortegon  of    the  natives  (Coccolaba 

macrophyJla)   is   one   of  the  most   conspicuous   trees, 

forming  extensive  woods  near  the  coast.    It  bears  im- 

181 


i82  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

mense  purple  spikes,  more  than  a  yard  long.  This 
tree  is  confined  to  Porto  Rico  and  Hayti.  There  are 
also  a  beautiful  tillandsia,  bearing  immense  white 
odorous  flowers  and  silvery  leaves,  very  ornamental 
in  appearance  and  yielding  a  timber  called  sabino;  a 
hirtella,  with  crimson  flowers;  another  species  with 
purple  flowers  and  beautiful  orange-hued  foliage,  and 
various  trees  of  similarly  striking  aspect. 

Of  the  useful  woods  may  be  named  the  cedar,  of 
both  the  hard  and  the  soft  varieties,  and  the  West 
India  ebony  and  sandal-wood,  all  of  which  are  com- 
mon. Another  common  wood,  called  ausnbo,  is  used 
largely  for  building  purposes.  Woods  suitable  for 
construction,  indeed,  are  numerous,  twenty  or  more 
species  occurring,  known  chiefly  by  native  names.  So 
excellent  are  some  of  the  woods  that  Porto  Rican  tim- 
ber has  been  largely  used  in  building  the  royal  palace 
at  Madrid,  including  mahogany,  cedar,  ebony,  ausubo, 
aceitillo  (oil  wood),  and  other  varieties. 

In  addition  to  lumber  trees  there  are  said  to  be 
some  thirty  medicinal  plants,  eight  resinous  woods,  a 
dozen  plants  useful  for  dyeing  and  tanning,  as  many 
plants  used  for  condiments,  and  a  considerable  variety 
of  fruit-bearing  trees.  Of  the  latter,  one  of  the  most 
ubiquitous  is  the  cocoa,  which  grows  everywhere  in 
the  coast"  region,  however  sandy  and  unfertile.  Its 
nuts  are  an  important  article  of  commerce  and  home 
consumption,  and  the  tree  itself  is  put  to  many  uses. 

The  royal  palm  seems  indigenous  here,  as  in  Cuba, 
and  is  much  used  for  ornamental  purposes.  It  has 
also  its  utilities, — one  being  the  use  of  the  leaf  spathes 
for  the  roofing,  and  often  the  framing,  of  the  native 
huts.     Another  palm   of  striking  appearance   is  the 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  183 

beautiful  orcodoxa,  a  tenant  of  the  hills  and  mountains, 
where  it  at  times  attains  the  unusual  height  of  150  feet. 

ANIMAL  LIFE. 

There  is  nothing  peculiar  in  the  fauna  of  Porto 
Rico,  which  presents,  indeed,  a  marked  deficiency  of 
native  animals.  Its  largest  indigenous  quadruped  is 
the  agouti,  an  animal  of  the  size  and  habits  of  a  hare, 
a  shy  and  timid  creature,  inhabiting  rocky  hill-sides 
and  wood  borders.  We  may  name,  in  addition,  the 
shell-covered  armadillo,  much  hunted  for  its  savory 
flesh,  and  among  reptiles  the  iguana,  a  creature  of 
hideous  aspect,  but  whose  savage  appearance  belies  it, 
since  it  is  naturally  timid  and  only  fights  when  cor- 
nered. Unattractive  as  it  looks,  it  is  said  to  form  a 
delicious  dish  when  stewed.  Of  wild  animals,  the  only 
dangerous  one  is  the  wild  dog,  which  has  escaped 
from  civilization  and  haunts  the  forests,  making  dep- 
redations on  the  farmers'  pigs  and  calves.  It  hunts 
in  bands,  and,  though  never  attacking  man,  it  might 
kill  children  if  they  came  unprotected  in  its  way.  Wild 
hogs  also  are  occasionally  seen. 

The  island  is  fortunately  free  from  poisonous  ser- 
pents; its  one  large  snake,  the  boa,  being  regarded 
rather  with  favor  than  dislike,  since  it  is  harmless  to 
man,  and  is  of  use  as  a  destroyer  of  rats  and  mice.  It 
is  from  six  to  twelve  feet  in  length.  The  insect  pests 
of  the  West  Indies  are  not  lacking,  including  scor- 
pions, tarantulas,  centipedes,  wood-ticks,  fleas,  and 
chigoes;  yet  with  proper  care  danger  from  these  may 
be  avoided.  A  destructive  insect  is  the  wood-ant,  or 
wood-louse,  which  bores  into  timber  and  furniture, 
quickly  reducing  it  to  powder.    At  times,  in  the  his- 


184  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

tory  of  the  island,  this  insect  has  proved  a  serious 
scourge,  and  the  abandonment  of  the  first  settlement, 
Caparra,  was  due  to  its  attacks. 

Birds  are  numerous  in  the  mountains,  the  species 
including  the  dove;  and  along  the  coast  the  flamingo 
is  found  in  great  numbers,  also  the  pelican.  There 
are  in  addition  pigeons,  parrots,  plover,  snipe,  ducks, 
and  various  sea-fowl,  and  the  game  birds  include  wild 
guinea-fowl  and  turkeys.  The  song  and  plumage 
birds  are  not  plentiful,  there  being  among  them  mock- 
ing-birds, troupials,  wild  canaries,  and  sugar  birds; 
while  there  are  several  varieties  of  thrushes,  owls, 
hawks,  kingfishers,  etc.;  there  being  in  all  about 
150  species  of  birds  in  the  island.  Among  these  are  a 
few  species  of  humming-birds,  very  numerous  in  indi- 
viduals, which  haunt  like  fiying  gems  the  gardens  of 
the  island  at  all  seasons  of  the  year. 

Of  the  fauna  of  the  island,  the  most  interesting  form 
is  the  gigantic  tortoise,  similar,  except  in  size,  to  the 
land-turtle  of  Trinidad  and  the  adjacent  South  Ameri- 
can shores.  It  is  said  to  be  closely  allied  to  the  huge 
tortoises  of  the  Galapagos  and  Mascarene  islands. 
The  fresh  waters  contain  few  species  of  fish,  but  the 
surrounding  seas  are  rich  in  edible  fishes  of  every  size, 
shape,  color,  and  quality,  which  are  found  in  the  bays 
and  channels  and  in  the  deeper  waters,  including  the 
anchovy,  sardine,  eel,  shad,  sword-  and  saw-fishes, 
shark,  and  various  other  species. 

MINERALS. 

The  mineral  products  of  Porto  Rico  have  been  but 
little  developed,  and  await  fuller  research.  Gold  seems 
to  have  been  mined  by  the  early  Spaniards  in  placer 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  185 

deposits,  and  is  said  to  exist  in  the  rivers  of  the  Sierra 
Luquillo,  Corazal,  and  Mayaguez,  but  Httle  is  known 
regarding  it.  The  occurrence  of  mercury  is  reported 
by  Cleves,  and  iron  has  been  found  in  several  locahties. 
specular  ore  on  the  Rio  Cuyul  and  elsewhere,  and 
magnetic  ore  at  Gurabo  and  Ciales.  Loiza  is  said  to 
possess  as  fine  iron  as  that  of  Cuba.  Considerable 
copper  has  been  found  at  Naguabo;  zinc,  rock-crystal, 
coal,  etc.,  in  the  Mala  Pascua  Mountains;  grindstone 
in  Moca,  granite  in  Maunabo  and  Yabucoa,  marble  in 
Caguas,  Rio  Piedras,  etc.,  and  plaster  and  whitestone 
in  Ponce  and  Juana  Diaz.  As  to  the  quantity  of  these 
metals  and  minerals  and  their  adaptation  to  mining 
operations,  the  future  must  tell.  At  present  their  rich- 
ness is  an  unknown  quantity. 

There  are  some  natural  salt  works  on  the  island, 
principally  in  Guanica,  Coamo,  and  Cabo  Rojo,  and 
salt  has  been  obtained  in  considerable  quantities  at 
these  localities.    As  yet  it  is  the  only  mineral  product. 

The  Rio  Prieto  yields  large  quartz  crystals  of  fine 
quality,  malachite  has  been  found  at  Rio  Blanco,  and 
fine  agate  at  Kaja  de  Muestos.  The  other  minerals 
include  molybdenite,  limonite,  magnetic  pyrites,  epi- 
dote,  garnet,  chrysocolla,  and  other  species.  What  is 
known  concerning  the  mineral  resources  of  the  island 
indicates  that  it  may  possess  valuable  resources  in  this 
direction. 


IV,  CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS. 

GOVERNMENT  AND  RELIGION. 

Under  the  Spanish  administration,  the  supreme 
authority  in  Porto  Rico  was  vested  in  a  governor- 
general,  who  was  also  military  governor  of  the  island, 
the  troops  being  commanded  by  a  deputy  appointed 
by  him.  There  was  an  elective  council,  to  be  consulted 
concerning  the  government  of  the  island,  though  pos- 
sessing no  executive  authority.  Justice  was  adminis- 
tered by  four  courts, — one  supreme  over  the  whole 
island  and  three  criminal  courts,  one  each  at  San  Juan, 
Ponce,  and  Mayaguez.  Minor  justices  served  for  local 
administration  of  the  laws. 

The  island  was  divided  into  seven  departments. 
These,  named  from  the  chief  city  of  each,  bore  the 
following  titles:  Aguadilla,  Arecibo,  Bayamon.  Guay- 
ama,  Humacao,  Mayaguez,  and  Ponce.  These  em- 
braced in  all  about  seventy  villages,  in  each  of  which 
the  governing  power  was  represented  by  an  alcalde. 
The  island,  as  has  been  already  stated,  was  repre- 
sented in  the  Cortes  of  Spain,  and  under  the  1897 
system  of  autonomy  was  granted  a  home  parliament. 
But,  as  in  Cuba,  Spain  kept  a  firm  grasp  upon  the 
reins  of  powder,  and  these  seemingly  free  institutions 
were  so  only  in  form. 

We  speak  here  in  the  past  tense,  since  the  form  of 

government  described  no  longer  exists,  Porto  Rico 

having  passed  from  the  dominion  of  Spain  to  that  of 

the  United  States.    The  war  was  succeeded  by  a  tem- 

186 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     187 

porary  period  of  military  rule,  until  a  form  of  govern- 
ment could  be  organized  in  accordance  with  the  liberal 
institutions  of  the  United  States. 

As  in  all  Spanish  countries,  the  official  religion  of 
Porto  Rico  is  the  Roman  Catholic,  supported  by  taxa- 
tion. Ecclesiastical  affairs  are  administered  by  a 
bishop,  attached  to  the  archbishopric  of  Santiago  de 
Cuba.  This  dignitary  has  the  credit  of  holding  the 
most  ancient  bishopric  in  America,  the  earliest  incum- 
bent of  the  ofifice  being  appointed  at  the  first  settle- 
ment by  Pope  Julius  II.  The  island  is  divided  into 
many  vicarages,  and  every  minor  district  has  its  cu- 
rate. The  intolerance  shown  in  Cuba,  however,  is  not 
quite  so  fully  manifested  in  Porto  Rico,  since  there  is 
at  least  one  Protestant  church  in  the  island,  in  the  city 
of  Ponce,  though  it  is  not  at  present  used.  It  is  likely 
to  come  into  use,  and  others  added,  under  the  influ- 
ence of  American  religious  liberty. 

ROADS  AND  RAILWAYS. 

Porto  Rico  is  better  supplied  than  Cuba  with 
traversable  highways,  and  one  is  able  to  travel  in 
parts  of  the  island  with  some  degree  of  comfort. 
Chief  for  excellence  among  its  routes  of  travel  is  the 
military  road  that  crosses  the  island  from  San  Juan 
to  Ponce,  and  which  is  an  admirably-constructed 
turnpike,  eighty-five  miles  long.  On  a  level  founda- 
tion is  laid  a  thick  layer  of  crushed  rock  and  brick, 
closely  packed  and  covered  with  earth.  The  top 
dressing  is  a  layer  of  ground  limestone,  which  has 
been  pressed  and  rolled  until  it  glistens.  In  that 
climate,  and  with  no  heavy  travel,  this  forms  an  ex- 
cellent and  durable  roadway. 


i88  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

There  are  well-constructed  roads  in  other  parts  of 
the  island  connecting  the  towns,  the  total  length  of 
good  highways  being  less  than  250  miles.  An  effort 
has  been  made  to  encircle  the  island  wath  a  series  of 
highways;  this  quadrilateral  to  be  connected  with  a 
second  one  inland  by  transverse  roads.  But  this  is 
far  from  completed,  and  most  of  the  interior  is  only  to 
be  reached  by  bridle-paths,  or  horse  and  mule  trails, 
on  which  travellers  must  go  in  single  file. 

The  length  of  good  roadway  is  likely  soon  to  be 
considerably  increased.  Even  during  the  brief  period 
of  the  war,  General  Roy  Stone  was  actively  engaged 
in  road-building,  for  military  purposes,  between  Ad- 
juntas  and  Utuado,  and  the  labor  thus  inaugurated  is 
sure  to  be  continued. 

The  construction  of  railways  has  been  fairly  com- 
menced, there  being  at  present  137  miles  completed 
and  in  operation,  while  170  miles  more  are  under  pro- 
cess of  construction.  In  1888,  a  project  was  formed  of 
encircling  the  island  with  a  railroad:  a  Spanish  com- 
pany being  organized,  and  two  years'  interest  at  eight 
per  cent,  on  the  capital  being  guaranteed  by  the 
government.  The  length  of  the  road  was  to  be  283 
miles,  of  which  119  had  been  completed  by  1892. 
Since  then  little  has  been  done,  the  government  having 
withdrawn  its  support.  The  longest  section  of  road  is 
that  from  San  Juan,  along  the  north  coast,  to  Camuy, 
a  distance  of  sixty  and  a  half  miles.  Another  road 
from  San  Juan  runs  fourteen  miles  to  La  Carolina.  Of 
other  lines  in  operation  may  be  named  that  from 
Ponce  to  Yauco,  twenty  and  a  half  miles,  and  that 
from  Aguadilla  to  Hormiguero,  thirty-five  miles. 
Some  of  these  better  deserve  the  title  of  tramways. 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL    RELATIONS.     189 

The  length  of  telegraph  now  in  operation  is  470 
miles,  the  wires  being  under  government  control.  The 
telephone  has  been  introduced,  and  is  in  use  in  the 
principal  cities.  There  is  submarine  cable  connection 
with  other  West  Indian  islands. 

As  regards  steamship  connection  with  distant  lands, 
it  is  at  present  mainly  commercial.  There  has  for 
years  been  a  line  to  New  York,  principally  carrying 
freight.  The  coasting  trade  of  the  island  is  sadly  defi- 
cient. There  is  said  to  be  but  one  small  boat  engaged 
in  this  trade,  quite  insufficient  in  size  to  take  all  the 
freight  that  is  offered,  and  selecting  the  smaller  and 
more  profitable  articles  in  preference. 

POPULATION. 

Porto  Rico  is  somewhat  closely  settled,  its  popula- 
tion having  grown  with  considerable  rapidity  during 
the  present  century.  In  1830  it  contained  about  320,- 
000  people.  These  had  increased  by  i860  to  583,308; 
by  1880  to  754,313;  and  at  the  census  of  1887  to  806,- 
708.  At  the  present  time  the  population  probably  ap- 
proaches a  million,  or  some  250  to  the  square  mile, 
making  it  more  densely  peopled  than  any  of  the  West 
India  islands  except  Barbadoes.  For  this  reason,  Mr. 
Hanna,  the  American  consul  in  the  island,  has  advised 
intending  immigrants  from  the  United  States  to  stay 
away,  particularizing  "  such  persons  as  clerks,  car- 
penters, mechanics,  and  laborers  of  all  grades,"  there 
being  "  several  hundred  thousand  Porto  Ricans  ready 
to  fill  the  vacant  jobs,  and  at  a  low  price." 

At  present  there  is  a  remarkably  small  proportion 
of  foreigners  on  the  island,  less  than  one  per  cent., 
nearly  the  whole  population  being  native.     There  is 


IQO  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

another  particular  in  which  Porto  Rico  differs  from 
the  West  India  islands  in  general, — the  white  out- 
numbering the  black  and  colored  people.  In  this  re- 
spect it  is  only  matched  by  Cuba. 

The  natives  of  the  island  are  usually  divided  into 
four  classes, — those  who  consider  themselves  the 
superior  class,  and  rejoice  in  the  name  of  Spaniards; 
the  peasant  class,  usually  called  gibaros;  the  mestizo 
class,  of  mixed  blood;  and  the  blacks.  During  the 
period  when  Porto  Rico  was  a  penal  colony,  many  of 
the  military  men  who  formed  the  colonial  garrison 
married  and  settled  in  the  island,  and  it  is  their  de- 
scendants who  now  constitute  the  upper  or  Spanish 
class.  Some  of  these  are  wealthy  and  all  of  them 
proud,  filled  with  Spanish  opinions  and  prejudices, 
and  manifesting  all  the  stateliness  of  deportment  of 
the  Spanish  grandee.  From  this  class  come  most  of 
the  merchants,  planters,  and  professional  people  of 
the  island. 

The  lower  class  of  whites  constitute  the  small 
farmers  in  the  country,  and  many  who  in  the  cities 
manage  to  support  life  by  any  labor  that  comes  to 
their  hands.  They  are  of  old  Spanish  stock,  many  of 
them  the  descendants  of  former  convicts;  but  there  is 
some  reason  to  believe  that  they  have  become  modified 
by  an  admixture  of  Indian  blood.  Their  adaptation 
to  field  work  under  the  tropical  sun  indicates  that  the 
whites,  despite  the  prevailing  theory,  are  capable  of 
becoming  acclimated  to  out-door  labor  in  the  climate 
of  the  West  Indies. 

The  black  and  colored  population  forms,  with  the 
gibaros,  the  laboring  class  of  the  island.  They  are  in 
a  minority,  have  been  well  treated,  and  seem  thor- 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     191 

oiighly  content  with  their  lot,  which  is  more  than  can 
be  said  of  the  colored  people  of  the  other  West  Indian 
islands.  There  is  a  reason  for  this  in  the  relations  of 
equality  existing  between  the  whites  and  the  negroes. 
As  early  as  1830  there  were  far  more  free  colored 
people  in  Porto  Rico  than  in  any  other  island  of  the 
West  Indies,  and  for  a  quarter  of  a  century  all  the 
negroes  have  been  free.  The  gibaro,  like  the  white  in 
any  land,  is  not  without  the  pride  of  race;  but  he  has 
not  thought  of  treating  his  fellow-laborer  of  dark- 
skin  with  contumely  or  contempt.  The  whole  former 
policy  of  the  island  was  based  upon  humane  treatment 
of  the  slaves,  and  the  good  effects  of  this  policy  are 
reflected  in  the  present  status  of  the  blacks. 

Under  the  Spanish  laws,  the  relations  between  mas- 
ter and  slave  were  carefully  considered,  the  hours  of 
labor,  quantity  of  food  and  clothTfig,  and  other  particu- 
lars being  provided  for.  Owners  were  obliged  to  give 
their  slaves  instruction  in  the  tenets  of  Christianity, 
and  humane  regulations  for  the  encouragement  of 
marriage  were  made.  As  regards  punishment,  twenty- 
five  stripes  were  the  maximum  which  could  be  law- 
fully given.  Of  course,  such  regulations  as  these  are 
apt  to  become  dead  letters  unless  sustained  by  the 
sentiment  of  the  people.  Similarly  humane  laws  were 
passed  to  regulate  the  treatment  of  slaves  in  Cuba, 
but  they  were  broken  at  will.  In  Porto  Rico,  on  the 
contrary,  good  treatment  of  the  slaves  seems  to  have 
been  the  general  rule,  and  a  feeling  of  amity  is  the  pre- 
vailing sentiment  between  whites  and  blacks. 

According  to  the  last  olificial  census,  that  of  Decem- 
ber 31,  1887,  the  population  of  the  island  was  as  fol- 
lows: 


192  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

White 480.267 

Colored 248,690 

Black 77,751 

806,708 

Spanish  in  descent 800,963 

Foreigners 5^745 

806,708 

Able  to  read  and  write 96,867 

Able  to  read  only 14, 5 13 

Illiterate 695,328 

806,708 

EDUCATION 

The  census  returns  for  1887  just  given  indicate  a 
very  low  condition  of  public  education  in  Porto  Rico. 
In  truth,  what  education  exists  on  the  island  is  almost 
confined  to  the  high*  class, — the  gibaros  being  de- 
plorably ignorant  and  the  negroes,  of  course,  in  the 
same  condition.  The  Spanish  government  has  made 
some  efforts  to  promote  the  cause  of  education.  In 
1882,  it  was  ordered  that  a  portion  of  the  direct  taxes 
should  be  applied  to  the  establishment  of  free  schools. 
A  few  years  subsequently,  it  appearing  that  the  small 
farmers  and  planters  lived  so  isolated  a  life  that  their 
children  could  not  attend  school  regularly,  it  was  pro- 
posed to  concentrate  these  people  mto  agricultural 
colonies  and  villages,  with  a  view  to  the  advancement 
of  education. 

These  measures  have  had  little  effect,  eighty-seven 
per  cent,  of  the  people  being  illiterate,  despite  the  fact 
that  on  paper  a  satisfactory  provision  for  education 
exists.  The  school  system,  as  organized,  provides  for 
three  grades  of  instruction, — primary,  secondary,  and 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     193 

superior.  There  seems  to  be  a  considerable  number 
of  the  elementary  schools  through  the  cities  and  the 
rural  districts,  while  the  superior  schools  number 
twelve,  eight  being  for  boys  and  four  for  girls.  Boys, 
indeed,  have  the  best  of  it;  and  the  women  of  the 
island  are  very  generally  illiterate. 

In  addition  to  the  public  schools,  there  are  many 
private  schools  and  seminaries,  and  the  so-called 
Spanish  or  higher  class  pay  considerable  attention  to 
the  education  of  their  children.  San  Juan  possesses 
a  college  in  which  medicine  and  law  may  be  studied, 
and  a  normal  school  to  which  students  of  both  sexes 
are  admitted.  For  those  able  to  read,  some  literary 
provision  has  been  made,  the  island,  in  1894,  possess- 
ing thirty-five  newspapers  and  periodicals.  Of  these, 
seventeen  were  published  in  San  Juan,  eight  in  Maya- 
guez,  and  seven  in  Ponce. 


13 


V.  CENTRES  OF  POPULATION. 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS. 

The  abundant  population  of  Porto  Rico  has  brought 
nearly  the  whole  surface  under  cultivation,  and,  in 
addition  to  the  large  cities,  there  are  more  than  fifty 
towns,  the  centres  of  small  departments  containing 
from  six  to  thirty  thousand  inhabitants.  The  effort 
of  Spain  to  concentrate  the  people  has  been  in  a  meas- 
ure successful,  many  of  the  rural  laborers  dwelling  in 
towns  or  villages,  whence  they  proceed  daily  to  the 
fields.  Thus  the  country,  with  the  exception  of  the 
unsettled  mountain  elevations,  presents  the  aspect  of 
a  continuous  succession  of  farms  and  villages.  Some 
of  the  towns  date  back  to  the  era  of  original  settle- 
ment, others  were  founded  within  the  eighteenth  cen- 
tury, and  a  considerable  number  in  the  nineteenth,  as 
a  result  of  the  rapid  increase  in  population. 

The  towns  present  a  general  resemblance  in  plan 
and  mode  of  building,  and  are  closely  affiliated  with 
those  of  Cuba  in  their  narrow  streets,  central  plazas, 
and  gaudily-painted,  stuccoed  houses.  The  larger 
cities  are  chiefly  seaports,  and  are  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  call  for  a  separate  description. 

SAN  KJAN. 

The  capital  and  oldest  town  on  the  island,  San  Juan 
Bautista  de  Puerto  Rico,  to  give  it  its  full  official  title, 
is  situated  on  the  north  coast,  at  a  point  approaching 
194 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  195 

the  east  end,  its  location  being  a  long,  narrow  island 
which  bears  some  resemblance  to  an  arm  with  the 
attached  hand.  The  principal  portion  of  the  city  is 
on  the  expanded  area  representing  the  hand,  which  is 
about  half  a  mile  wide.  The  average  width  of  the 
island  is  less  than  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  its  length  about 
two  and  a  quarter  miles.  It  is  connected  with  the 
main-land  by  a  bridge  named  San  Antonio.  At  its 
western  extremity,  it  is  three-fourths  of  a  mile  from 
the  main-land,  and  ends  in  a  rugged  promontory,  a 
hundred  feet  or  more  in  height. 

On  the  summit  of  this  blufif  rises  Morro  Castle,  the 
principal  fortification  of  the  harbor.  On  a  little  islet 
ofif  the  mouth  of  the  harbor  is  the  small  but  strong 
fort  of  Canuelo,  between  which  and  Morro  all  ships 
entering  the  port  must  pass.  Farther  along  the  shore, 
connected  by  a  wall  with  the  Morro,  is  the  castle  of 
San  Cristobal,  which  crosses  the  island,  facing  both 
seaward  and  landward,  and  forming  a  part  of  the  city 
wall.  In  addition  are  the  outlying  forts  of  San  An- 
tonio and  San  Geronimo,  which  defend  the  bridge  to 
the  main-land.  Inland,  sharply  outlined  against  the 
sky,  rises  a  range  of  mountains,  whose  spurs  come 
down  in  broken  hills  almost  to  the  sea. 

The  harbor,  which  occupies  the  space  between  the 
island  and  the  shore,  has  been  already  described.  The 
city  itself  is  ancient  in  date,  having  been  founded  in 
151 1,  immediately  after  the  settlement  of  Porto  Rico, 
and  retains  traces  of  its  antiquity,  particularjy  in  its 
walls,  which  are  maintained  in  their  original  integrity, 
and  present  us  with  a  perfect  example  of  the  defences 
of  a  mediaeval  town.  The  walls,  which  include  in  their 
circuit  the  fortifications  of  El  Morro  and  San  Cristo- 


196  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

bal,  are  in  excellent  condition,  massive  and  strong,  and 
in  places  more  than  a  hundred  feet  high.  With  their 
moat,  gates,  portcullis,  and  battlements,  they  form  a 
highly  picturesque  spectacle.  The  city  has  overrun 
its  walls  in  two  localities,  called  the  Marina  and  Puerta 
de  Espaiia,  of  three  or  four  thousand  inhabitants  each ; 
and  there  are  two  small  suburbs  on  the  main-land, 
San  Turce  and  Catafio,  built  on  sand-spits  and  sur- 
rounded by  mangrove  swamps.  The  total  population 
is  about  30,000. 

The  city  possesses  various  relics  of  antiquity,  em- 
bracing the  fortress  of  San  Catalina,  in  the  circuit  of 
its  walls,  built  in  1534,  and  the  Morro,  dating  back  to 
1584.  Near  the  latter  is  another  interesting  edifice, 
the  "  Casa  Blanca,"  the  castle  of  Ponce  de  Leon,  who 
was  the  settler  and  first  governor  of  the  island.  It  is 
the  largest  building  in  the  city,  and  in  it  are  kept,  in 
a  leaden  case,  the  mortal  remains  of  the  noted  searcher 
for  the  fountain  of  youth. 

San  Juan  is  regularly  laid  out,  its  streets  crossing 
at  right  angles,  some  of  them  following  the  length  of 
the  island,  and  others  running  transversely.  They  are 
wider  than  those  in  the  old  town  of  Havana,  two  car- 
riages being  able  to  pass  each  other;  but  the  side- 
walks, in  places,  are  only  wide  enough  for  a  single 
person.  The  streets  are  paved  with  glazed  brick,  due 
to  the  prevalence  of  small-pox  some  years  ago,  which 
caused  the  tearing  up  of  the  old,  imperfect  pavement. 

The  town,  like  all  those  of  the  Spanish  West  Indies, 
has  its  breathing  places,  there  being  four  spacious  and 
shady  plazas,  while  there  are  three  streets  beautifully 
shaded  by  trees, — the  Princesa.  the  Govadonga,  and 
the  Puerto  de  Tierra.    There  is  one  agreeable  feature 


CENTR.es   of   population.  197 

not  common  in  the  Spanish  West  Indies;  the  streets 
are  subjected  to  a  daily  hand-sweeping  and  are  kept 
pleasantly  clean.  The  same  cannot  be  said  of  the 
houses,  which  are  as  notable  for  filth  as  the  streets  are 
for  cleanliness.  The  ground  floors  of  the  two-story 
buildings,  whose  upper  floors  serve  as  residences  for 
the  more  respectable  inhabitants,  are  occupied  by  ne- 
groes and  the  poorer  classes  generally,  and  are  fright- 
fully crowded, — a  whole  family  often  occupying  a 
single  room,  divided  by  a  flimsy  partition. 

The  result  is  the  reverse  of  sanitary,  and  the  city, 
which  from  its  situation  should  be  healthful,  is  much 
the  reverse.  The  basic  soil  is  a  rock-like  mixture  of 
clay  and  lime,  impermeable  by  water  and  furnishing 
a  good  natural  drainage;  but  the  dense  crowding  of 
the  people,  and  their  very  primitive  ideas  of  cleanli- 
ness, invite  disease.  About  20,000  people,  half  of  them 
of  negro  descent,  and  most  of  them  ground-floor 
dwellers  as  described,  are  crowded  within  the  walls, 
while  the  suburbs  contain  probably  10,000  more. 

The  deficiency  of  potable  water  and  the  lack  of 
sewerage  add  to  the  unhealthfulness  of  the  city.  No 
water  has  been  introduced,  and  there  are  no  fresh- 
water wells;  so  that  the  people  have  to  depend  on  rain- 
water conducted  from  the  flat  roofs  of  the  buildings 
to  the  cisterns,  which  occupy  the  greater  part  of  the 
court-yards.  This  water  is  very  apt  to  become  con- 
taminated, and  may  fail  entirely  in  dry  seasons. 
Vaults  occupy  the  space  in  the  court-yards  not  taken 
up  by  cisterns,  and  the  only  drainage  is  through  the 
sinks  and  that  caused  by  rains  in  the  streets. 

Under  these  conditions,  we  cannot  be  surprised  that 
frequent  epidemics  visit  the  town.    Only  for  the  strong 


198  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

and  fresh  trade-winds,  and  the  flow  of  the  sea-water, 
which  sweeps  past  at  the  speed  of  three  miles  an  hour, 
the  city  would  be  unfit  to  live  in.  As  it  is,  it  swarms 
with  vermin  of  all  kinds,  fleas,  roaches,  and  other  un- 
pleasant visitants. 

There  is  no  excuse  for  such  a  state  of  afifairs  in  a 
modern  city,  and  it  will  probably  not  much  longer 
exist.  San  Juan  is  now  a  city  of  the  United  States, 
not  of  Spain,  and  cannot  be  permitted  to  maintain  its 
unsavory  condition.  A  plentiful  supply  of  water  from 
without,  efificient  sewerage,  and  stringent  regulations 
regarding  cleanliness  would  utterly  transform  the  city, 
converting  it  from  a  plague-spot  to  a  sanitarium.  As 
regards  the  deficiency  of  water,  an  effort  has  been  re- 
cently made  to  overcome  it;  a  contract  being  made 
in  1892  with  a  London  company  to  build  an  aqueduct 
from  the  main-land.  The  completion  of  this  has  been 
prevented  by  floods  and  other  obstacles. 

San  Juan  has  its  fair  share  of  public  edifices,  more 
or  less  attractive  in  appearance.  In  addition  to  the 
Cathedral,  the  churches  include  those  of  San  Jose, 
San  Francisco,  Santa  Ana,  La  Providencia,  St.  Augus- 
tine, and  others.  Other  edifices  include  the  Bank  of 
Spain  and  Porto  Rico,  the  Hotel  Inglaterra,  the  Jesuit 
college,  the  Archbishop's  palace,  and  various  buildings 
devoted  to  public  business,  amusement,  education, 
charity,  etc.  There  are  many  shops  and  a  number  of 
large  stores,  tastefully  arranged  and  well  filled  wTth 
goods.  The  port  usually  contains  many  vessels,  being 
visited  by  steam-  and  sailing-craft  of  all  nationalities. 

The  benevolent  institutions  of  San  Juan  include  an 
orphan  asylum,  an  insane  asylum,  a  maternity  hospital, 
the  Hospital  of  Santa  Rosa,  and  the  College  of  St.  Ilde- 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  199 

fonsa  for  the  education  of  poor  children.  There  are 
also  many  social  organizations,  founded  upon  a  be- 
nevolent basis,  but  whose  principal  purpose  is  enjoy- 
ment. These  embrace  the  Society  for  the  Protection 
of  Intelligence,  the  Grand  Economic  Society,  the 
Friends  of  Peace,  the  Athenaeum,  the  Casino  Espafiol, 
the  Casino  de  San  Juan,  etc. 


PONCE. 

Ponce,  the  second  city  in  commercial  importance, 
is  situated  near  the  south  coast  of  the  island,  in  a 
southwest  direction  from  San  Juan,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  the  military  road  already  mentioned.  It 
has  a  civic  population  estimated  at  22,000,  with  a  large 
adjacent  rural  population,  while  Playa,  its  seaport, 
about  two  miles  distant,  has  about  5000  inhabitants. 
The  latter,  lying  on  the  spacious  bay  of  which  we  have 
already  spoken,  contains  the  custom-house,  the  con- 
sular offices,  etc.,  and  is  connected  with  Ponce  by  a 
fine  highway. 

Ponce,  which  was  founded  by  Ponce  de  Leon,  whose 
name  it  bears,  on  his  return  from  his  Florida  expedi- 
tion, is  one  of  the  most  attractive  cities  on  the  island, 
containing  many  handsome  residences,  while  it  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  fertile  and  beautiful  plain.  In  its  centre 
is  a  pretty  plaza  known  as  Las  Delicias,  having  amid 
its  tropical  foliage  an  ornamental  Turkish  kiosk.  The 
churches  of  the  city  include  a  cathedral  and  a  Protes- 
tant Episcopal  church;  and  there  are  a  number  of 
public  edifices,  including  three  first-class  hotels,  two 
hospitals  besides  the  military  hospital,  a  home  for  the 
old  and  poor,  etc.    The  theatre,  called  the  Pearl,  is  the 


200  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

finest  on  the  island,  and  is  handsome  outside  and  at- 
tractive within. 

The  houses  of  Ponce,  built  of  stone  and  brick,  re- 
semble those  of  San  Juan.  Those  in  the  suburbs  are 
usually  of  wood.  The  city  is  regularly  laid  out,  is 
amply  supplied  with  water  by  an  aqueduct,  and  the 
heat  of  the  climate  is  tempered  by  land  breezes  at 
night  and  sea-breezes  during  the  day,  so  that,  though 
it  lacks  the  cool  winds  of  San  Juan,  its  warmth  is  not 
oppressive.  Its  record  for  healthfulness  stands  high, 
being  much  superior  to  that  of  San  Juan.  In  the 
vicinity  are  medicinal  baths,  whose  warm  w-aters  have 
a  reputation  for  the  cure  of  cutaneous  complaints. 

MAYAGUEZ. 

This  city,  founded  in  1752,  at  the  point  on  the  Mona 
Passage  at  which  Columbus  is  said  to  have  disem- 
barked on  his  visit  in  1493,  is  the  third  commercial  city 
of  the  island,  having  a  large  trade  in  the  products  of 
the  adjacent  fertile  regions,  and  possesses,  besides, 
three  chocolate  manufactories,  w'hose  product  is  con- 
sumed at  home.  It  has  a  population  estimated  at 
11,000,  of  whom  the  larger  number  is  white.  Near  by 
is  a  beautiful  plain,  in  a  high  state  of  cultivation,  over 
which  flow  the  waters  of  the  Rio  Mayaguez.  The 
climate  bears  a  good  reputation,  the  thermometer 
never  recording  a  higher  temperature  than  90°  F. 

A  principal  item  in  the  trade  of  this  port  is  coflfee, 
its  annual  export  averaging  170,000  hundred-weights. 
The  quality  is  high,  the  prices  obtained  being  those 
of  the  best  brands.  The  lower  grades  are  sent  to 
Cuba.  There  are  also  large  exports  of  sugar,  pine- 
apples, oranges,  and  cocoa-nuts,  all  of  which  go  prin- 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  201 

cipally  to  the  United  States.  The  imports  of  Maya- 
guez  inchide  about  50,000  bags  of  flour  annually,  more 
than  a  fourth  of  the  total  receipts  of  the  island, 

OTHER  SEAPORTS. 

North  of  Mayaguez,  and  connected  with  it  by  rail- 
way, is  the  port  of  Aguadilla,  a  town  of  some  5000  in- 
habitants, well  shaded  by  tropical  trees,  and  with  a 
central  plaza  in  four  sections,  in  each  of  which  is  a 
statue  in  the  midst  of  a  pretty  garden.  Fine  grazing- 
lands  surround  the  place,  and  sugar-cane,  coffee,  to- 
bacco, and  cocoa-nuts  are  cultivated  in  the  vicinity. 
Oranges  and  lemons  are  also  grown,  and  fish  are 
abundant.  The  distillation  of  rum  from  molasses  is 
one  of  the  chief  industries  of  the  town. 

Arecibo,  in  the  western  section  of  the  north  coast, 
is  a  town  of  about  7000  population,  a  thriving  place 
with  an  active  trade.  Of  the  unsatisfactory  character 
of  its  harbor  we  have  already  spoken.  An  extensive 
sandy  beach  lies  between  it  and  the  ocean,  through 
which  flows  a  narrow  and  shallow  stream  called  the 
Rio  Grande  de  Arecibo.  By  way  of  this  stream  goods 
are  conveyed  to  vessels  in  the  roadstead,  flat-bottomed 
boats  being  employed,  pushed  by  long  poles.  This 
slow  process,  with  the  subsequent  lighterage,  is  a 
tedious  and  expensive  operation;  yet  Arecibo  serves 
as  the  port  of  an  extensive  and  fertile  district,  and  has 
a  large  commerce.  In  its  vicinity  are  extensive  cofifee 
and  sugar  plantations,  fine  grazing  lands,  etc.  The 
town  is  built  of  wood  and  brick,  its  streets  running  at 
right  angles  from  the  central  plaza,  which  is  sur- 
rounded by  public  buildings.  There  are  a  large 
church,  a  theatre,  and  other  edifices  of  importance. 


202  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  cave  of  Consejo,  in  the  vicinity,  is  noted  for  the 
beauty  of  its  stalactites.  The  valley  of  Arecibo  River 
is  one  of  the  most  picturesque  and  beautiful  in  the 
island. 

Of  east-coast  ports  the  principal  is  Fajardo,  a  town 
of  some  3000  inhabitants,  its  leading  industry  being 
the  manufacture  of  muscovado  sugar,  and  the  expor- 
tation of  sugar,  molasses,  tortoise-shell,  etc.  Lumber 
and  provisions  are  imported  from  the  United  States. 

Farther  south,  on  the  east  side  of  the  island,  lies 
Naguabo,  a  small  place  of  2000  inhabitants ;  Playa  de 
Naguabo,  of  1500  people,  on  the  harbor,  serving  as 
its  port.  Humacao,  nine  miles  away,  the  capital  of  the 
department,  has  about  6000  inhabitants.  Cofifee  is  a 
prominent  product  of  the  district,  and  much  fruit  is 
grown.     Cattle  are  also  plentiful. 

On  the  south  coast,  in  addition  to  the  harbors  of 
Ponce  and  Guanica,  is  that  of  Arroyo,  near  the  east 
end  of  the  island,  and  serving  as  the  port  of  Guayama, 
four  miles  inland.  It  is  a  small  place,  yet  serves  as  the 
shipping  point  for  a  fertile  sugar  district,  exporting 
annually  to  the  United  States  nearly  10,000  hogsheads 
of  sugar,  several  thousand  casks  of  molasses,  and  a 
hundred  or  more  casks  and  barrels  of  bay-rum.  Near 
by  are  the  noted  caves  of  Aguas  Buenas,  from  one  of 
which  runs  the  river  Caguitas,  after  a  subterranean 
flow. 

INLAND  TOWNS. 

Porto  Rico,  while  possessing  numerous  villages  in 
its  elevated  interior  region, — manv  of  them  attractive 
from  their  cool  temperature  and  salubrious  situation, 
— has  few  inland  towns  of  importance.  San  German, 
in  the  southwest,  not  far  from  the  bay  of  Cabo  Rojo, 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  203 

is  one  of  the  principal  of  these.  This  is  an  old  town, 
almost  as  ancient  as  San  Juan,  and  is  the  centre  of  a 
district  containing  some  20,000  people,  formerly  very 
productive,  but  now  less  so.  The  town,  of  about  8000 
population,  stands  on  a  hill  near  the  river  Guanajibo, 
possesses  a  seminary,  hospital,  and  other  institutions, 
and  has  three  plazas,  on  one  of  which  is  an  antique 
Dominican  convent  and  a  church  of  some  pretension. 

Some  twenty  miles  west  of  Ponce,  with  which  it  is 
connected  by  railway,  lies  the  town  of  Yauco,  one  of 
the  first  to  be  occupied  by  American  troops.  Some- 
what farther  to  the  east  lies  Coamo,  also  occupied  by 
General  Miles's  forces;  and  north  of  Guayama  is  the 
village  of  Cayey,  which  was  about  being  attacked  when 
news  reached  camp  of  the  signing  of  the  peace  pro- 
tocol. In  the  hill  country  north  of  these  positions  is 
the  town  of  Aibonito,  on  the  military  road  across  the 
island,  which  the  Spanish  forces  had  strongly  fortified. 
A  fierce  and  sanguinary  battle  at  this  point  was 
checked  by  the  news  of  the  protocol. 

Among  the  other  highland  villages  are  Aguas 
Buenas,  in  the  midst  of  coffee  fields  and  fruit  farms; 
Cidra,  notable  for  its  fine  forest  scenery;  and  the  cen- 
trally located  Barros,  in  a  cofTee  and  grazing  district. 
Adjuntas,  the  southern  end  of  General  Roy  Stone's 
military  highway,  has  an  elevated  situation,  cofifee  and 
fruit  farms  covering  the  neighboring  ridges  and  many 
streams  flowing  through  the  valleys.  Utuado,  at  its 
other  extremity,  has  a  similarly  attractive  mountain 
situation.  Aguada  claims  an  antiquity  running  back 
to  151 1.  It  has  a  large  sugar-grinding  plant;  as  also 
has  Anasco,  the  central  point  in  a  very  productive 
region.     Bayamon  has  a  small  iron-works  and  a  re- 


204  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

finery  of  petroleum,  Caguas  has  lime  and  marble  quar- 
ries, and  Rio  Piedras  boasts  a  health  resort  known  as 
La  Convalecencia.  The  mountain  village  of  Harmi- 
gueros,  near  San  German,  is  notable  for  possessing 
the  shrine  of  Montserrat,  once  a  place  of  pilgrimage 
not  only  for  the  people  of  the  island,  but  for  those  of 
other  islands  ranging  from  St.  Thomas  to  Martinique 
and  Curasao. 


VL  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 

THE  SPANISH  CLASS. 

The  upper  class  of  the  people  of  Porto  Rico,  who 
still  rejoice  in  the  name  of  Spaniards,  despite  the  fact 
that  they  are  the  descendants  of  military  settlers  of  a 
century  or  two  ago,  keep  up  all  the  pride  of  hidalgos, 
and  form  a  distinctive  class  of  the  population  which 
scrupulously  avoids  any  mingling  of  blood  with  the 
gibaros.  What  wealth  is  possessed  by  the  natives  is 
in  their  hands,  and  they  have  long  sedulously  main- 
tained the  opinions  and  prejudices  of  their  Spanish 
ancestry,  so  that  there  is  little  community  of  feeling 
between  them  and  the  lower  people. 

This  class  is  the  only  one  on  the  island  that  has  any- 
thing beyond  the  merest  rudiments  of  education.  The 
professions  and  the  commercial  and  planting  indus- 
tries are  largely  in  their  hands,  and  many  of  them  are 
wealthy,  while  they  are  generally  well-to-do. 

They  are  a  good-looking  people,  and  one  that  en- 
joys life  to  the  utmost.  The  ladies  are  usually  hand- 
some, refined  in  manners,  and  amiable  in  disposition, 
though  living  in  the  seclusion  prescribed  for  the  sex 
in  Spanish  countries  generally.  They  have  regular 
features,  large,  swimming  black  eyes,  and  bright  and 
alert  expression.  In  form  they  are  small,  and  are 
noted  for  their  small  hands  and  feet.  In  dress  they 
seek  to  follow  the  styles  of  Paris,  though  usually  a 
year  or  two  behind  date. 

The  men  of  this  class — as,  indeed,  the  islanders  in 

205 


2o6  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

general,  from  planter  to  beggar — are  gamblers  by 
nature;  the  habit  being  common  to  all  the  people, 
many  of  whom  squander  their  substance  in  games  of 
chance.  The  lottery,  cock-fighting,  and  other  gam- 
bling devices  serve  as  ready  means  with  numbers  of 
them  to  dispose  of  their  last  dollars.  The  people,  in- 
deed, are  fond  of  amusements  of  all  kinds;  steady 
devotion  to  business  being  the  one  thing  to  which  they 
are  not  addicted. 

In  regard  to  food  and  drink,  what  has  been  said 
concerning  the  Cubans  will  apply  here ;  though  some- 
thing may  be  said  about  their  fondness  for  beer,  which 
they  prefer  to  any  other  drink.  Beer,  despite  its  very 
high  price,  is  used  daily  in  the  house  as  a  tonic  before 
meals;  and  it  is  also  used  at  parties  and  festivals,  at 
the  theatres,  balls,  etc.,  no  other  drink  being  so  much 
in  demand.  In  1896,  there  were  imported  $146,000 
worth  of  bottled  beer,  to  which  we  may  add  at  least 
$200,000  worth  which  is  smuggled  every  year  into  the 
island.  A  brewery  on  the  island,  which  will  probably 
soon  be  established  by  American  capital,  must,  by 
lowering  the  price,  greatly  increase  the  demand. 

THE  PEASANT  CLASS. 

In  the  country  the  lower  class  is  mainly  engaged  in 
farming  occupations,  doing  no  more  work  than  they 
can  well  avoid,  and  living  as  nearly  in  a  state  of  nature 
as  the  laws  permit.  Clothing  here,  as  in  Cuba,  is  not 
wasted  on  children  until  they  are  ten  or  more  years  of 
age.  Nature  is  so  prolific  that  no  great  amount  of 
labor  is  needed  to  obtain  the  means  of  living.  Those 
of  them  who  work  as  laborers  on  the  cofifee  planta- 
tions receive  for  pay  fifty  plantains  a  day.    After  feed- 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  207 

ing  his  family  on  these,  the  laborer  carries  the  rest  to 
market,  devoting  one  day  in  the  week  to  this,  and  car- 
rying his  small  stock  often  as  many  as  twenty  miles, 
as  much,  perhaps,  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  town 
as  to  sell  his  goods.  As  regards  the  condition  of  the 
laborers  on  the  sugar  estates,  we  have  already  spoken. 

The  farming  peasantry,  though  indolent,  are  quick- 
witted and  sagacious,  fond  of  eating  and  drinking,  and 
rather  free  in  their  morals.  They  are  natively  hos- 
pitable, and  the  traveller  can  always  look  for  a  warm 
welcome  and  a  share  of  their  best.  They  live  in  the 
simplest  manner,  their  cabins  being  thatched  with 
palm-leaves  and  often  open  at  the  sides,  the  mild 
climate  calling  for  no  greater  shelter.  If  there  is  a 
door  it  stands  open  day  and  night.  They  have  no 
dread  of  thieves,  for  they  possess  nothing  worth  steal- 
ing,— two  or  three  bark  hammocks,  a  few  pots  and 
calabash  shells,  some  game-cocks,  and  a  machete 
forming  the  bulk  of  their  movable  property. 

The  small  planters  constitute  a  considerable  propor- 
tion of  the  population,  and  by  their  pre-emption  of  the 
land  have  prevented  it  from  falling  into  the  hands  of 
the  monopolizing  sugar  planters.  As  long  ago  as 
1835,  there  were,  according  to  Colonel  Flinter,  some 
1300  small  sugar  planters  and  vegetable  raisers, — in 
his  view  the  best  part  of  the  population, — and  nearly 
18,000  (now  about  21,000)  small  proprietors  raising 
cattle  and  provisions. 

These  people  he  characterizes  as  resembling  the 
peasantry  of  Ireland, — ready  to  fight  on  very  small 
provocation,  yet  proverbially  hospitable  and  polite  to 
strangers,  with  the  "  remarkable,  underlying,  inbred 
Spanish  politeness."    They  are,  as  we  have  said,  nor- 


2o8  OUR  ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

nially  indolent;  their  possessions  consisting  of  a  few 
coffee  bushes  and  a  plantain  grove,  an  acre  or  so  in 
corn  and  sweet  potatoes,  a  cow,  a  horse,  and  other 
small  possessions.  Thus  provided  with  food  plants 
that  need  little  care  and  attention,  the  gibaro  spends 
most  of  his  time  at  home  swinging  in  a  hammock, 
smoking,  and  strumming  the  strings  of  his  guitar. 
When  he  goes  abroad,  dressed  in  a  clean  shirt,  cotton 
jacket,  and  check  pantaloons,  Ihis  head  covered  with 
a  wide  straw  hat,  and  mounted  on  a  half-fed  and  over- 
worked horse,  with  a  long  sword  protruding  from  his 
baskets,  he  is  one  of  the  happiest  and  most  indepen- 
dent of  beings.  Whether  his  destination  be  the  mass, 
a  dance,  or  a  cock-fight,  it  is  all  one  to  him,  each  being 
a  pleasant  variation  from  the  monotony  of  every-day 
life.  It  is  evident  from  all  this  that  there  is  much  room 
for  improvement  in  the  customs  of  the  gibaro,  and 
this  may  come  with  improved  education  and  the  stim- 
ulus of  American  education.  These  easy-going  peas- 
antry are  now  citizens  of  the  United  States,  which 
means  something  more  than  being  subjects  of  Spain. 
A  marked  change  has  come  over  the  social  condi- 
tion of  the  people  of  Porto  Rico  since  a  century  and 
a  half  ago.  Then  there  were  no  towns,  aside  from  the 
few  seaports,  and  the  sparsely  settled  people  of  the 
island  came  together  only  on  feast-days  at  the  central 
points  of  their  several  parishes.  Their  huts  were  of 
the  rudest,  and  the  calabash  almost  their  only  utensil, 
an  empty  bottle  being  kept  as  an  heirloom  in  the 
family.  At  present  more  than  half  the  population 
dwell  in  towns  and  villages,  and  their  greater  pros- 
perity has  enabled  them  to  obtain  many  more  con- 
veniences.   What  they  still  need  is  education,  with  an 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  209 

advanced  conception  of  the  needs  and  dignity  of 
civilized  life.  In  this  respect  time  may  bring  about  a 
great  improvement  in  their  condition  and  aspirations. 
We  have  already  spoken  of  the  status  of  the  colored 
population  of  the  island,  and  nothing  further  seems 
called  for.  Both  as  regards  whites  and  blacks,  what 
has  been  said  concerning  the  manners  and  customs  of 
the  Cubans  applies  in  large  measure  to  the  Porto 
Ricans,  who  are  of  the  same  race  and  have  been  ex- 
posed to  much  the  same  influences.  For  this  reason 
it  is  unnecessary  to  go  here  into  further  detail. 


14 


VIL  AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 

FERTILITY  OF  THE  SOIL. 

Porto  Rico  possesses  a  soil  of  the  greatest  fertility, 
equal,  if  not  superior,  to  that  of  any  other  island  of  the 
Antilles,  and  perhaps  the  best  of  all  for  the  general 
purposes  of  the  farmer.  None  of  the  islands  except 
Cuba  yields  as  much  sugar  to  the  acre,  and  no  other 
is  so  widely  cultivated  or  produces  such  a  diversity  of 
crops.  While  there  are  extensive  plantations  devoted 
to  the  production  of  sugar,  cofifee,  and  tobacco,  the 
land  is  not  monopolized  by  these  large  enterprises  as 
elsewhere,  but  in  great  part  is  held  by  small  farmers, 
and  much  of  it  devoted  to  the  growth  of  food  plants 
for  home  consumption. 

The  soil  of  the  mountain  regions  consists  of  a  red 
clay,  colored  by  iron  peroxide,  while  that  of  the  val- 
leys is  black  in  color  and  less  compact  in  texture.  The 
poorest  land  is  in  the  coast  regions,  where  there  are 
large  tracts  of  sandy  soil.  These,  however,  while  not 
very  fertile,  are  capable  of  some  degree  of  culture; 
nearly  the  whole  island,  in  fact,  being  susceptible  of 
cultivation.  Yet  much  of  the  soil  is  devoted  to  grazing 
purposes,  there  being  immense  pastures  in  the  north- 
ern and  eastern  districts  covered  with  nutritious 
grasses. 

The  forest  growth,  which  once  covered  nearly  the 
whole  island,  still  extended  over  a  great  part  of  its  sur- 
face a  century  ago,  the  process  of  clearing  not  becom- 

2IO 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  211 

ing  active  until  within  the  nineteenth  century.  Since 
then  the  land  has  been  rapidly  cleared,  it  being  needed 
for  agricultural  purposes  by  the  steadily  increasing 
population.  The  primeval  forest  growth  is,  in  conse- 
quence, now  confined  to  the  summit  regions  of  the 
mountains.  As  a  result  of  the  recent  date  of  its  utili- 
zation, the  soil  retains  much  of  its  original  fertility, 
and  has  not  yet  begun  to  demand  manures  as  a  re- 
quisite preliminary  to  crop  bearing.  The  provision 
made  by  nature  during  the  long  centuries  of  the  past 
still  suffices  in  most  instances. 

The  rapid  denudation  of  the  forest-covered  land  was 
far  from  satisfactory  to  the  colonial  authorities,  who 
made  a  strenuous  effort  for  the  preservation  of  the 
woodlands,  passing  a  law  under  which  every  one  who 
cut  down  a  tree  was  required  to  plant  three  in  its 
place.  But  this  edict  seems  to  have  become  largely 
a  dead  letter,  the  needs  of  the  farmers  proving  too 
urgent  to  be  controlled  by  the  wisdom  of  the  legisla- 
tors. 

As  the  island  now  appears,  with  its  broad  stretches 
of  rich  pasture  lands,  its  gently  rising  mountain  ter- 
races, its  prolific  fertility,  and  its  great  variety  of  tropi- 
cal scenery,  embracing  groves  of  beautiful  palms  and 
fruit  trees  and  a  multitude  of  undulating  streams,  it  is 
unsurpassed  in  its  attractions  to  the  lover  of  landscape 
effects  and  in  the  abundance  of  its  agricultural  possi- 
bilities. The  latter,  however,  are  far  from  being  de- 
veloped. The  peasant  manages  to  live  with  as  little 
labor  as  possible,  merely  scratching  the  soil  and  trust- 
ing to  its  prolific  returns  to  support  him  almost  with- 
out work.  There  are  on  the  island  more  than  20,000 
of  these  small  family  holdings,  devoted  to  the  raising 


212  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

of  provisions  and  cattle,  with  perhaps  a  Httle  sugar; 
a  kind  of  cultivation  not  likely  soon  to  exhaust  the 
land,  since  it  does  not  trespass  largely  on  its  powers. 
No  more  energetic  cultivation  than  this  can  be  looked 
for  from  the  small  land-holders  of  tropical  islands,  with 
their  enervating  climates  and  the  ease  of  living  with 
little  labor.  While  the  land  is  divided  as  it  is  at 
present,  even  American  energy  is  not  likely  to  stimu- 
late the  farming  population  to  greater  activity.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  increased  returns  from  large  land- 
holding  and  more  scientific  agriculture  might  be  cor- 
related with  a  serious  diminution  of  the  independence 
and  happiness  of  the  people. 

As  regards  the  distribution  of  the  soil  for  agricul- 
tural purposes,  the  last  census,  that  of  1887,  yielded 
the  following  particulars.  The  larger  estates  num- 
bered 433  devoted  to  sugar-cane  and  361  to  cofifee. 
Of  cattle  farms  there  were  240;  of  tobacco  farms,  66; 
of  small  cofifee  farms,  4181;  and  of  general  farms, 
4376.  What  were  designated  as  small  fruit  farms  em- 
braced the  large  number  of  16,988. 

FARM  CROPS. 

The  estates  for  the  cultivation  of  sugar-cane  lie 
mostly  on  the  lowland  plains  and  the  lower  slopes  of 
the  hill  country,  and"  are  remarkably  prolific  in  their 
yield,  the  annual  crop  averaging  about  6000  pounds 
to  the  acre,  a  yield  superior  to  that  of  any  other  of  the 
West  India  islands  with  the  exception  of  the  best  lands 
of  Cuba.  The  product  of  sugar  per  acre  is  about  three 
hogsheads,  and  this  is  obtained  without  the  use  of 
fertilizers.  The  grinding  is  done  in  large  mills  central 
to  the  sugar  districts,  there  being  one  of  these  at  the 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  213 

village  of  Anasco,  another  at  Aguado,  and  others  else- 
where, eight  such  plants  being  enumerated  in  the  last 
census  returns.  Many  of  the  mills  of  Porto  Rico,  how- 
ever, are  of  the  old-fashioned,  obsolete  character, — the 
mills  varying  from  the  antique  bullock-power  afifair 
or  a  small  concern  run  by  water-power  to  the  large 
steam-worked  ingenio,  with  its  electric  lights  and 
motors,  and  the  latest  and  best  sugar-making  ma- 
chinery. The  simplest  processes,  however,  have 
hitherto  been  the  prevailing  ones,  and  few  of  the  mills 
are  thoroughly  modernized  in  methods.  Nothing  need 
here  be  said  concerning  the  sugar  cultivation,  as  its 
methods  do  not  differ  from  those  in  use  in  Cuba. 

The  large  cane  plantations  have  been  hitherto  nearly 
all  owned  by  Spaniards,  many  of  whom  resided  in 
Spain.  Year  after  year  these  great  estates  have 
yielded  large  crops  of  sugar  at  a  very  low  cost  in  labor; 
but  nearly  all  of  this  has  been  sold  abroad,  and  the 
great  sum  of  the  proceeds  retained  in  Spain.  The 
result  has  been  that  the  apparent  balance  of  trade  in 
favor  of  the  island  has  been  an  actual  balance  against 
it,  a  state  of  affairs  that  will  now  probably  be  reformed. 

Of  Porto  Rican  products,  however,  the  leading  one 
is  coffee,  to  which  about  122,000  acres  are  devoted; 
while  but  half  of  this  area,  or  61.000  acres,  is  assigned 
to  sugar,  and  tobacco,  the  third  important  export  crop, 
occupies  little  over  2000  acres.  The  weight  of  coffee 
sent  abroad  averages  from  25,000,000  to  30,000,000 
pounds  per  annum;  the  island  product  being  a  mild 
coffee  of  superior  flavor,  and  one  which  is  in  high 
favor  in  Spain  and  Italy  and  on  the  island  of  Cuba. 

Coffee,  as  we  have  seen  in  the  case  of  Cuba,  de- 
mands a  more  elevated  situation  than  that  needed  for 


214  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

sugar,  the  highland  clearings,  usually  above  600  feet 
of  elevation,  being  given  to  this  crop.  The  finest 
plantations  are  in  the  south  and  west  of  the  island. 
The  Arabian  cofifee  does  best  at  a  height  of  from  1500 
to  3000  feet;  but  the  Liberian  coffee,  which  has  been 
recently  introduced,  will  grow  in  the  lowlands.  The 
latter  variety  is  more  hardy  and  less  subject  to  the 
scale  insect  than  the  Arabian,  and  is  more  prolific, 
yielding  sometimes  from  three  to  eight  pounds  per 
tree.  The  ordinary  average  yield  is  about  one  pound 
to  a  tree,  while  the  yield  per  acre  varies,  according  to 
the  number  of  trees  planted  and  the  fertility  of  the 
soil,  from  600  to  1200  pounds. 

The  shade  deemed  requisite  for  the  coffee  plant  in 
its  young  state  is  obtained  from  banana,  plantain,  and 
other  fruit  trees,  while  large  trees  are  planted  to  pro- 
tect the  tender  growth  from  the  wind.  As  the  plants 
are  set  out  in  rows  at  widths  of  ten  to  twenty  feet,  the 
spaces  between  are  utilized  for  the  planting  of  yams, 
sweet  potatoes,  and  other  vegetable  products.  The 
coffee  trees,  if  allowed  their  full  growth,  will  attain  a 
height  of  from  thirty  to  forty  feet.  For  convenience 
in  picking,  they  are  kept  cut  down  to  six  or  eight  feet, 
as  the  best  berries  grow  at  the  top.  Vigorous  pruning 
is  an  advantage,  as  it  prevents  the  strength  being 
given  to  wood-making  and  increases  the  yield  of  fruit. 
It  cannot  be  said  that  the  methods  of  coffee  culture 
in  Porto  Rico  are  all  they  should  be;  this  plant,  like 
everything  grown  on  the  island,  being  left  too  much 
to  the  care  of  nature.  With  intelligent  culture,  the 
quantity  and  quality  of  the  crop  might  be  considerably 
improved. 

Tobacco  has  hitherto  been  given  comparatively  lit- 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  215 

tie  attention,  though  it  is  a  crop  which  grows  luxuri- 
antly and  yields  leaf  of  good  quality,  not  falling  far 
short  of  the  famous  Cuban  product.  The  peculiar  soil 
of  the  Vuelta  Abajo  is,  indeed,  closely  simulated  in 
many  of  the  Porto  Rican  valleys, — a  light,  sandy  soil, 
rich  in  lime,  potash,  and  vegetable  humus.  It  is,  in 
fact,  not  easy  to  distinguish  between  Cuban  and  Porto 
Rican  tobacco,  as  most  of  the  crop  raised  here  goes 
to  Havana,  where  it  reappears  as  a  constituent  of  the 
famous  "  genuine  Havana  cigars." 

The  tobacco  farmers  of  Porto  Rico,  however,  are 
careless  in  the  curing  of  their  leaf,  being  too  indolent 
to  give  it  the  necessary  time  and  labor.  A  marked  im- 
petus was  given  to  the  growth  of  Porto  Rican  tobacco 
by  the  recent  insurrection  in  Cuba,  which  cut  off  the 
home  supply  and  largely  increased  the  price.  To  pre- 
serve the  impetus  thus  gained,  there  is  needed  but 
industry  and  intelligence,  the  use  of  good  Cuban  seed 
for  planting,  and  proper  care  in  raising  the  plant  and 
curing  the  leaf.  The  native  indolence  needs  to  be  in 
a  measure  overcome,  and  capital  and  judgment  in- 
vested, to  give  the  tobacco  of  Porto  Rico  a  reputation 
approaching  or  equalling  that  of  the  best  Cuban  leaf. 

Another  food  plant  which  can  be  profitably  grown 
in  Porto  Rico  is  cacao,  which  yields  the  bean  from 
which  comes  the  delicious  and  nutritive  chocolate. 
This  plant  is  native  to  the  island,  growing  well  in  the 
coast  country,  but  best  in  upland  valleys  from  300  to 
500  feet  above  sea-level.  The  tree  reaches  a  height  of 
twenty  or  thirty  feet;  its  fruit  pods,  which  grow  di- 
rectly from  the  limbs  and  trunk,  containing  thirty  or 
forty  seeds  enveloped  in  a  sweetish  pulp.  The  general 
cultivation  resembles  that  of  coffee,  though  the  trees 


2i6  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

are  slower  in  reaching  maturity,  not  attaining  full  bear- 
ing under  seven  years.  They  similarly  need  shade 
and  wind  breaks.  The  annual  yield-  varies  from  two 
to  eight  pounds  per  tree. 

The  staple  food  of  the  laboring  population  is  de- 
rived from  three  plants,  of  which  rice  is  one  of  the 
most  important.  This  is  largely  cultivated,  a  moun- 
tain variety  being  raised  which  grows  freely  in  the 
central  hill  country,  and  has  the  advantage  of  needing 
neither  irrigation  nor  special  watering  of  any  kind. 
Plantain,  the  second  of  these  crops,  is  grown  every- 
where, and,  baked  in  the  immature  stage,  serves  as 
the  bread  of  the  people.  Yauchia  (Caladium  esculcn- 
tiim)  is  a  root  plant,  somewhat  resembling  the  yam, 
but  totally  different  from  it  botanically.  It  has  an 
acrid  taste,  but  this  is  overcome  by  boiling  or  roasting. 

The  other  vegetables  include  the  sweet  potato,  yam, 
bean,  maize,  etc.,  and  the  fruits  are  the  banana,  mango, 
pineapple,  mammee,  custard-apple,  cocoa-nut,  guava, 
aguacate,  orange,  lemon,  and  various  others.  Guavas 
are  very  plentiful  and,  as  in  Cuba,  are  largely  made 
into  confections.  The  orange  grows  everywhere, 
almost  in  a  wild  state,  the  fruit  being  very  sweet,  with 
a  fine,  delicately  acid  pulp.  Lemons  are  equally  abun- 
dant, growing  wild  and  ripening  the  year  round.  The 
fruit  is  small  but  very  juicy.  The  pineapple  grows  in 
an  almost  wild  state,  and  the  island  fruits  include  a 
variety  of  cantaloupe  which  has  perhaps  no  equal  in 
the  world  in  quality  and  flavor. 

Scientific  agriculture  is  almost  unknown  in  the 
island,  particularly  in  the  case  of  fruit-raising,  which 
has  never  been  an  industry,  the  plants  being  practi- 
cally left  to  grow  wild.    Fertilizers  are  unknown;  but 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  217 

as  yet  the  soil  does  not  demand  them,  having  appa- 
rently a  recuperative  power  within  itself. 

Of  plants  of  possible  future  industrial  value  may  be 
mentioned  cotton,  which  was  grown  to  a  considerable 
extent  during  the  American  civil  war,  but  is  not  now 
an  industry,  though  the  cotton-plant  may  be  seen 
growing  wild  in  many  places.  It  yields  a  fibre  notable 
for  length,  whiteness,  and  tenacity.  The  leading  crops 
of  the  island  will,  of  course,  continue  to  be  sugar, 
coflfee,  tobacco,  and  rice,  and  these  are  likely  to  be- 
come greatly  developed  and  to  grow  much  more 
profitable  in  the  future, 

LIVE-STOCK. 

The  industries  of  Porto  Rico  include  cattle-raising, 
which  is  conducted  on  a  large  scale  on  the  exten- 
sive pastures  of  the  island.  These,  which  occur  prin- 
cipally in  the  low  plains  of  the  north  and  east,  sur- 
pass those  of  the  other  Antilles  for  grazing  purposes, 
being  covered  with  a  nutritious  leguminous  plant 
called  locally  malahojilla  (scientifically,  Hynienachne 
striatum),  which  is  of  high  excellence  as  a  cattle  food. 
The  beeves  of  Porto  Rico  are,  in  consequence,  much 
superior  to  those  of  Cuba;  their  meat  being  con- 
sumed not  only  on  the  island  but  exported  in  large 
quantities  to  the  Lesser  Antilles.  St.  Thomas,  Mar- 
tinique, Guadeloupe,  and  other  islands  are  largely 
dependent  on  Porto  Rico  alike  for  meat  and  for  work- 
oxen,  while  some  of  the  cattle  are  sent  as  far  as  Bar- 
badoes.  Cuba  also  receives  part  of  the  export.  In 
addition  to  cattle,  sheep  and  horses  are  raised,  the 
latter  being  of  a  small  but  hardy  breed.  Efforts  have 
been  made  to  improve  the  stock  by  the  introduction 


2i8  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

of  horses  from  the  United  States,  though  as  yet  with 
no  marked  results. 

The  island  has  the  large  area  of  over  1,100,000  acres 
devoted  to  pasturage,  while  the  number  of  cattle  and 
othei*"  farm  animals  was  computed  in  October,  1896, 
as  follows:  Oxen  and  cows,  303,612;  horses,  65,751; 
mules,  4467;  asses,  717;  sheep,  2055;  goats,  5779; 
swine,  13,411. 

Poultry  are  kept  in  large  numbers  on  the  farms, 
being  as  much  in  favor  as  in  Cuba.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  the  bee,  which  takes  its  place  among  the  most 
active  workers  of  the  land,  feeding  on  its  many  blos- 
soms, and  obtaining  a  supply  of  sweets  from  the  sugar- 
mills.    Beeswax  and  honey  rank  among  the  exports. 


VIII.  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 

ARTICLES  OF  MANUFACTURE. 

The  results  of  the  productive  industries  of  Porto 
Rico,  aside  from  those  of  agriculture,  may  be  dismissed 
in  a  few  words.  The  principal  of  these  arise  directly 
from  agriculture,  being  the  production  of  sugar  and 
molasses  from  the  cane  and  the  preparation  of  coffee 
for  market.  There  are  also  in  the  cities  manufactories 
of  cigars,  chocolate,  soap,  matches,  and  straw  hats. 
The  island  possesses  a  few  small  iron  foundries,  and 
there  is  a  considerable  distillation  of  rum  from  the 
molasses  yield;  but  its  manufactures,  as  a  whole,  are 
scarcely  worth  consideration. 

San  Juan  has  a  few  industries,  including  a  small 
refinery  owned  by  the  Standard  Oil  Company,  for  the 
refining  of  petroleum  brought  in  the  crude  state  from 
the  United  States.  It  also  produces  on  a  small  scale 
matches,  soap,  brooms,  trunks,  and  travelling  cases  of 
a  cheap  kind.  There  are  ice-machines  in  operation  for 
the  supply  of  the  city.  Ponce  has  little  that  can  be 
called  manufacturing,  and  the  same  may  be  said  of 
the  other  cities.  The  only  artisans,  as  a  rule,  are  those 
connected  with  the  building  trades,  together  with 
tailors,  shoemakers,  and  others  engaged  in  necessary 
local  occupations. 

COMMERCE. 

The  principal  exports  of  Porto  Rico  consist  of 
sugar,  coffee,  molasses,  cattle,  and  tobacco.      There 

219 


220  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

were  exported  in   1896,  according  to  a  report  from 
the  British  consul,  the  following  quantities  of  goods: 

Sugar 54.205  tons. 

Coffee 26,655  tons. 

Molasses I4)740  tons. 

Tobacco i)039  tons. 

Cattle 3,178  head. 

Hides 169  tons. 

Timber 30  tons. 

The  report  of  a  Porto  Rican  commercial  authority, 
the  "  Estadistica  General  del  Comercio  Exterior," 
gives  for  1895  the  following  list  of  values  of  the  prin- 
cipal exports  and  imports: 

EXPORTS. 

Articles.  Valub. 

Coffse ^,789,788 

Sugar 3,747,891 

Tobacco 646,556 

Honey 5'7.746 

IMPORTS. 

Articles.  Value. 

Rice ^2,180,004 

Fish 1,591,418 

Meat  and  lard 1,223,104 

Flour 982,222 

Olive  oil 327,801 

Cheese 324,137 

Vegetables 192,918 

Jerked  beef 133,616 

Other  provisions 171,322 

Tobacco  (manufactured) 663,464 

Wine 305,656 

Soap 238,525 

Iron 224,206 

Coal 119.403 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     221 

The  countries  engaged  in  this  commerce,  and  the 
value  of  articles  received  from  and  sent  to  each,  were 
as  follows: 

Country.  Imports.  Exports. 

Spain $8,572,549  $5,824,694 

Great  Britain 1,765,574  1,144,555 

United  States 1,506,512  1,833,544 

Germany 1.368,595  1,181,396 

France 251,984  1,376,087 

Cuba 808,283  3,610,936 

Lesser  Antilles 1,700,872  625,010 

Other  countries 371,485  828,709 

$16,354,854  $16,424,931 

If,  now,  we  consider  the  trade  with  the  United  States 
alone,  we  find  the  exports  from  Porto  Rico  during 
the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1896,  to  have  been  as 
follows : 

Sugar 81,582,810  pounds         $1,707,318 

Molasses 2,256,073  gallons              520,275 

Coffee 159,649  pounds               24,101 

Fruits  and  nuts 10,079 

Perfumery,  cosmetics,  etc.  8,784 

All  other  articles  ....  26,099 

Total $2,296,656 

Imports  of  Porto  Rico  from  the  United  States: 

Breadstuffs  (flour,  com,  etc.) $$21,357 

Provisions  : 

Hog  products 599.5^3 

Butter,  cheese,  etc 27,447 

Beans  and  peas 44>244 

Wood  {manufactured)  : 

Boards,  joists,  shooks,  etc 251,635 

Household  furniture 16,518 

Other  articles  of  wood 11,472 


222  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Coal ^78,625 

Candles 4,188 

Carriages,  street  cars,  etc 7,879 

Chemicals,  drugs,  and  dyes 56,184 

Cotton  fabrics 26,543 

Flax,  hemp,  jute  (manufactured) 18,497 

Oils 30,732 

Paper  and  paper  goods 15,423 

All  other  articles 236,504 

^1,946,761 

Of  the  various  classes  of  goods  received  from  com- 
mercial nations  by  Porto  Rico  in  recent  years,  the 
United  States  ranked  first  only  in  the  classes  of  provi- 
sions and  wood  and  its  manufactures.  In  the  class  of 
hardware  and  machinery  it  was  second  to  England 
and  Germany,  except  in  scales  and  boilers,  in  which 
it  stood  first.  In  paper  and  books  it  was  somewhat 
surpassed  by  Spain.  England  and  Germany  far  sur- 
passed this  country  in  metals  and  manufactures 
thereof,  except  in  the  items  of  wire  and  tinware.  In 
oils,  drugs,  and  chemicals  the  United  States  ranked 
next  to  Spain;  but  in  earthenware,  stone',  glass,  and 
porcelain  it  occupied  only  the  fifth  or  sixth  place, 
Germany  and  Spain  being  in  the  lead.  In  cotton, 
hemp,  jute,  and  manufactures  thereof  this  country  oc- 
cupied an  insignificant  position,  except  in  the  item  of 
cordage,  England  and  Spain  leading.  Its  trade  in 
wool  and  woollen  goods  was  as  nothing  compared 
with  England  and  Spain,  and  in  silk  goods  with  Erance 
and  Spain.  In  the  items  of  leather  and  grease  Spain 
had  nearly  the  entire  trade,  while  in  miscellaneous 
goods  the  only  American  trade  of  any  importance  was 
in  jewelry,  rubber,  oil-cloth,  and  artificial  flowers. 
Codfish,  one  of  the  principal  food  substances  imported 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     223 

into  Porto  Rico,  is  received  mainly  from  Nova  Scotia, 
whose  dealers  find  it  their  best  market,  many  of  them 
taking  their  pay  in  molasses. 

FINANCES. 

The  island  of  Porto  Rico,  previous  to  its  change  of 
relations  to  Spain  from  a  colony  to  a  province,  was 
using  American  currency;  but  shortly  afterwards  the 
Spanish  government,  finding  the  value  of  silver  coin 
declining,  decided  that  it  would  be  profitable  to  meet 
its  obligations  in  Porto  Rico  in  this  depreciated  silver. 
Mexican  dollars  were  employed  for  this  purpose,  by 
the  use  of  which  the  currency,  by  1878,  was  brought 
to  a  silver  basis,  the  gold  and  the  Spanish  dollars  dis- 
appearing. The  heavy  payments  for  crops  made  a 
redundant  currency,  a  large  portion  of  which  was 
shipped  away. 

The  most  recent  dealing  with  the  currency  was  in 
1895,  when  the  Spanish  government  took  up  all  the 
Mexican  and  Spanish  coins  in  circulation,  substituting 
for  them  coins  prepared  expressly  for  the  island. 
These  bear  on  one  side  the  Spanish  coat  of  arms  and 
the  words  "  Isla  de  Puerto  Rico,"  and  on  the  other  the 
face  of  the  boy  king  of  Spain.  They  include  the  peso, 
corresponding  in  appearance  with  our  dollar,  and 
smaller  coins  equivalent  to  forty,  twenty,  ten,  and  five 
cents,  with  minor  copper  coins. 

These  coins  represent  little  more  than  their  bullion 
value,  the  Spanish  government  having  made  no  at- 
tempt to  maintain  their  face  value,  and  they  pass  freely 
at  the  rate  of  $1.75  for  $1.00  in  American  coin,  while 
exchanges  have  been  made  at  two  for  one.  This  coin- 
age aggregates  6,000,000  pesos,  while  the  banlcs  of  the 


224  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

island  have  added  to  it  about  1,000,000  in  paper,  partly 
at  par  with  the  silver  and  partly  at  a  discount.  But 
this  has  no  general  circulation.  The  rate  which  has 
been  fixed  by  the  United  States  for  the  Spanish  peso 
in  Cuba — sixty  cents  as  compared  with  the  American 
dollar — has  been  also  established  as  a  standard  of  value 
for  Porto  Rico. 

The  Spanish  system  of  taxation  needs  a  radical 
change,  and  it  will  undoubtedly  be  necessary  to  remit 
some  of  the  unpopular  taxes  now  prevailing,  and  raise 
a  considerable  share  of  the  revenue  by  taxes  upon 
spirits  and  tobacco,  now  scarcely  taxed  at  all.  A  tax 
on  spirits  would  cause  no  hardship  to  the  people,  and 
in  connection  with  the  remission  of  other  taxes  would 
prove  a  popular  movement. 

There  are  only  five  banks  in  Porto  Rico,  of  which 
San  Juan  possesses  two.  Private  banking  houses  do 
a  large  share  of  the  business,  all  the  leading  mercantile 
houses  engaging  in  foreign  banking.  The  Spanish 
Bank  (Banco  Espanol  de  Puerto  Rico)  is  the  largest 
institution  of  the  kind,  and  has  facilities  extending 
over  the  whole  island.  The  second  in  importance  is 
the  Banco  Territorial  y  Agricola.  Ponce  possesses 
the  Deposito  y  Ahorro  Ponceno.  All  these  do  a  safe 
and  good  business.  There  is  a  savings-bank  in  San 
Juan,  the  Ahorro  Colectivo,  which  consists  of  a  co- 
operative society,  its  purpose  being  to  educate  the 
working-class  in  the  principles  of  economy. 

The  normal  rate  of  interest  in  the  island  varies  from 
ten  to  fourteen  per  cent.,  and  a  loan  at  nine  per  cent, 
is  considered  very  low.  Mortgages,  when  all  taxes, 
charges,  and  fees  are  paid,  cost  almost  twenty  per  cent, 
to  negotiate;  and  some  planters  are  now  paying  nearly 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     225 

fifty  per  cent,  on  mortgage  loans,  through  various  ex- 
actions. The  taxes  laid  on  agriculture  under  Spanish 
rule  amounted  to  from  seventeen  to  twenty-five  per 
cent,  of  the  profits  of  the  planters.  Under  all  these 
burdens  the  planters  made  money,  and,  if  relieved  of 
these  unjust  exactions,  there  seems  no  reason  why 
they  should  not  become  very  prosperous.  The  island 
of  Porto  Rico  has  entered  upon  a  new  and  promising 
stage  of  its  existence,  and  as  a  part  of  the  United 
States,  with  just  laws  and  intelligent  enterprise,  we 
may  safely  look  for  a  great  development  of  its  re- 
sources and  a  marked  increase  in  its  prosperity. 

FUTURE  PROSPECTS. 

By  the  terms  of  the  treaty  signed  December  10, 
1898,  Porto  Rico  was  definitely  ceded  to  the  United 
States  and  ceased  to  be  a  province  of  Spain.  This 
change  of  ownership  has  made  a  radical  change  in  its 
commercial  relations,  putting  an  end  to  the  preferen- 
tial duties  under  which  its  industrial  dependence  upon 
Spain  was  maintained,  and  permitting  the  establish- 
ment of  equitable  commercial  regulations.  Under  the 
new  conditions,  the  United  States  must  gain  a  much 
closer  business  relation  with  Porto  Rico — now  a  part 
of  itself — than  heretofore,  receiving  a  larger  propor- 
tion of  its  exports  and  sending  it  a  fuller  supply  of 
bread-stuffs  and  n\anufactured  goods.  More  liberal 
educational  institutions  cannot  but  have  their  efifect  in 
reducing  the  deep  ignorance  of  the  people,  and  with 
education  must  come  new  wants  and  demands  and 
increased  energy  and  intelligence  in  production. 

Engineers  and  representatives  of  capital  have  al- 
ready sought  the  island  in  numbers,  with  the  view  of 

15 


226  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

building  new  railroad  and  electric  lines,  and  making 
other  improvements;  while  the  agents  of  American 
business  houses  are  actively  on  the  lookout  for  trade. 
Agencies  for  lumber  firms,  glass  manufactories,  and 
other  industries  have  been  established  in  the  principal 
cities,  and  there  are  excellent  opportunities  for  the 
profitable  investment  of  capital  alike  in  agriculture 
and  manufactures. 

The  great  demand  for  beer,  even  at  its  former  high 
rates,  has  been  mentioned,  and  breweries  will  un- 
doubtedly be  among  the  first  of  the  new  industries  of 
the  island.  Tanneries  are  also  likely  to  be  established 
in  view  of  the  large  cattle  product.  Those  now  ex- 
isting produce  only  the  poorest  quality  of  sole  leather, 
soft  leather  being  imported  mainly  from  France, 
Tanneries  using  improved  methods  and  machinery 
would  soon  control  the  leather  trade  of  the  island, 
which  is  capable  of  being  largely  developed. 

Nearly  all  shoes  are  imported,  and  shoe  factories 
would  prove  profitable  investments.  The  same  may  be 
said  of  cotton-  and  paper-mills,  glass  works,  and 
several  other  manufacturing  industries.  Steam  laun- 
dries are  needed  in  the  large  cities,  the  prices  now 
charged  for  hand-laundry  work  being  very  high.  Ice 
plants  are  needed,  there  being  none  at  present  except 
in  San  Juan,  Ponce,  and  Alayaguez.  The  high  price 
charged  for  ice  almost  prohibits  its  use. 

Candles  are  used  only  by  a  portion  of  the  inhabi- 
tants, the  poor  people  preferring  the  cheap  cocoa-nut 
oil  to  candles  at  five  cents  each.  Those  now  used  are 
imported  from  Spain  and  Belgium,  and  a  candle  fac- 
tory on  the  island  would  reduce  the  price  more  than 
half.     Lumber  machinery  is  greatly  needed,  building 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     227 

operations  being  very  expensive  from  the  fact  that 
planing,  grooving  and  sawing  of  kimber  are  now  all 
done  by  hand.  There  is  an  abundance  of  fine  building 
and  cabinet  woods,  but  much  lumber  is  imported, 
wood-working  machinery  being  almost  unknown  upon 
the  island. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  bricks.  Splendid  brick 
clay  is  to  be  found  everywhere,  principally  red  and 
yellow  in  color;  yet  at  present  there  are  only  a  few 
brick-works,  and  these  very  primitive  in  their  methods. 
The  bricks  made  are  of  the  roughest  kind,  and  are 
concealed  in  buildings  by  plaster  and  painting. 
American  pressed  bricks  would  be  highly  appreciated. 

Such  are  some  of  the  needs  of  the  island  in  relation 
to  manufactures.  It  will  undoubtedly  continue  mainly 
agricultural,  the  bulk  of  its  manufactured  goods  being 
imported,  and  the  demand  for  these  from  the  United 
States  will  no  doubt  largely  increase  under  the  new 
tarift  regulations,  while  cheapened  goods  cannot  fail 
to  add  greatly  to  the  total  demand. 


SECTION  III. 

HAWAII. 

•  •  • 

L  HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

In  January  of  the  year  1778,  the  Resolution  and 
Discovery,  the  exploring  ships  of  the  famous  Captain 
Cook,  first  came  in  sight  of  the  outlying  islands  of  the 
Hawaiian  group,  and  were  visited  by  the  wondering 
natives  in  their  canoes.  There  is  reason  to  believe 
that  Spanish  navigators  had  visited  these  islands  at  a 
much  earlier  date;  but  they  kept  their  discoveries  to 
themselves,  and  the  islands  now'  for  the  first  time  be- 
came definitely  known  to  the  civilized  world.  His 
discovery  proved  a  fatal  one  to  Captain  Cook.  The 
visitors  were  looked  upon,  at  first,  by  the  natives  as 
gods,  but  were  soon  found  to  be  men,  who  treated 
them  and  their  religion  with  indignity,  going  so  far  as 
to  burn  their  idols.  As  a  result,  a  controversy  arose, 
which  ended  in  the  death  of  the  discoverer,  who  was 
stabbed  by  one  of  the  incensed  islanders. 

The  Hawaiians  were  found  to  have  made  some 
progress  in  government,  each  island  having  its  king, 
who  ruled  with  despotic  sway.  Another  step  in  politi- 
cal organization  was  soon  to  be  made.  Vancouver, 
one  of  Cook's  companions,  returned  to  the  islands  in 
1792,  and  found  Kamehameha,  a  subordinate  chief  on 
228 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  229 

his  former  visit,  now  ruler  over  the  whole  island  of  Ha- 
waii. In  the  following  years  this  ambitious  chieftain, 
a  man  of  decided  warlike  genius  and  force  of  char- 
acter, inspired  his  people  with  his  own  sentiments,  and 
invaded  and  made  himself  monarch  of  the  whole  island 
group. 

Alert  of  mind  and  keen  of  wit,  the  new  monarch 
induced  Vancouver  to  build  him  a  vessel  on  the  Euro- 
pean model,  to  which  in  the  succeeding  years  he  added 
numerous  others,  obtained  fire-arms  from  the  trading 
whites,  drilled  and  trained  his  men,  and  easily  over- 
came his  brave  but  less  progressive  opponents.  He 
organized  a  standing  army,  built  armories  and  bat- 
teries, and  erected  at  Honolulu  a  strong  fort  mounted 
with  heavy  guns. 

The  Hawaiian  king  used  his  absolute  power  wisely 
and  well.  Under  his  strict  rule  anarchy  was  repressed, 
theft  and  oppression  were  prohibited,  and  peace  and 
security  assured;  the  conquered  chiefs  being  kept  at 
his  court,  nominally  as  counsellors,  really  as  hostages 
for  their  good  behavior.  The  arts  of  peace — as  agri- 
culture, commerce,  and  the  useful  handicrafts — were 
fostered;  horses  were  introduced,  and  the  Hawaiians 
soon  became  bold  and  skilful  riders;  trade  with 
foreign  lands  was  encouraged,  the  king  deriving  his 
revenue  largely  from  the  active  commerce  in  sandal- 
wood. 

White  men  were  encouraged  to  settle  on  the  islands; 
Kamehameha,  while  keeping  up  the  native  customs 
himself,  providing  European  houses  and  furniture  for 
his  foreign  guests,  among  whom  were  several  physi- 
cians and  many  artisans.  His  own  subjects  were  in- 
duced to  study  the  arts  of  the  whites,  and  numbers  of 


230  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

them  became  expert  as  carpenters,  coopers,  black- 
smiths, and  tailors. 

Among  the  visitors  were  no  missionaries.  Van- 
couver had  made  earnest  endeavors  to  instruct  the 
natives,  and  had  been  requested  by  the  king  to  send 
them  religious  teachers  from  England.  But  this  re- 
quest was  not  complied  with,  and  the  natives  remained 
idol-worshippers  until  after  the  death  of  their  con- 
quering monarch  in  1819. 

Yet,  though  Kamehameha  maintained  the  old  rites, 
the  people  had  for  years  been  losing  faith  in  their 
wooden  gods,  and  in  the  repressive  custom  of  the  tabu, 
so  wide-spread  in  the  Pacific  islands.  Under  this  cus- 
tom, any  article  declared  sacred  by  king  or  high-priest 
dared  not  be  touched  on  peril  of  life.  In  particular, 
women  were  prohibited  from  eating  at  the  same  table 
with  men,  or  even  from  eating  the  food  left  uncon- 
sumed  by  men.  They  were  also  forbidden  to  eat  meat. 
The  punishment  for  breaking  the  tabu  was  death, 
often  with  torture. 

The  decease  of  Kamehameha  was  followed  by  a  re- 
markable event.  Liholiho,  the  new  king,  a  weak  man 
as  compared  with  his  father,  was  associated  in  the 
government  with  Kaahumanu,  the  second  wife  of 
Kamehameha,  and  a  woman  of  decision  and  resolu- 
tion. The  whites  violated  the  tabu  with  impunity,  and 
induced  native  women  to  do  so  with  them;  yet  the 
gods  took  no  heed  of  this  desecration.  Kaahumanu 
thereupon,  losing  faith  in  the  old  custom,  determined 
upon  a  decisive  act,  and  with  some  difficulty  induced 
the  vacillating  king  to  accede  to  her  wishes.  A  formal 
feast  was  given,  to  which  some  of  the  high  chiefs  were 
invited.    As  soon  as  the  meats  prepared  for  the  men 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  231 

were  cut  up,  the  king  bade  his  astonished  attendants 
carry  some  of  these  doubly-forbidcien  viands  to  the 
tables  reserved  for  the  women,  and  even  seated  him- 
self among  them  and  ate  with  them.  Cries  of  amaze- 
ment succeeded.  The  shout,  "The  tabu  is  broken!" 
resounded  on  all  sides.  Several  chiefs,  who  had  been 
previously  won  over,  followed  the  king's  example,  and 
the  tidings  of  the  radical  act  spread  rapidly  through 
the  kingdom.  The  high-priest,  who  supported  the 
king,  resigned  his  office;  the  king  announced  that 
both  idols  and  priests  were  abolished,  and  the  wooden 
gods,  which  for  ages  had  been  worshipped,  were 
hurled  from  their  high  estate  and  committed  to  the 
flames. 

This  act,  of  a  people  spontaneously  abandoning  its 
ancient  religious  faith,  without  instigation  from  abroad, 
was  one  without  precedent  in  the  history  of  mankind. 
The  Hawaiians  left  themselves  by  their  own  act  with- 
out a  religion,  and  celebrated  with  a  jubilee  their  de- 
liverance from  an  oppressive  superstition.  Their  radi- 
cal act  was  not  accomplished  without  opposition.  The 
party  of  the  priests  flew  to  arms  and  fought  for  their 
gods.  A  pitched  battle  succeeded,  the  last  on  the 
islands,  which  ended  in  the  defeat  of  the  idolaters  and 
the  suppression  of  idolatry. 

This  loss  of  a  religion  was  quickly  followed  by  the 
advent  of  a  new  one.  In  1820,  a  par^y  of  missionaries, 
coming  from  the  United  States,  reached  the  islands. 
They  found  a  virgin  field  for  their  efforts,  and  at  once 
went  earnestly  to  work.  In  addition  to  their  religious 
teachings  they  established  schools,  and  with  such 
effect  that  in  less  than  forty  years  the  whole  people 
were  taught  to  read  and  write,  to  cipher  and  to  sew. 


232  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  nearly  naked  and  sensual  savages  of  the  preceding 
era  adopted  clothing  and  strict  marriage  rites,  accepted 
Christianity,  and  became  educated  and  civilized,  a  re- 
markable change  coming  over  them  within  a  century's 
extent. 

In  1824,  the  new  king,  crowned  as  Kamehameha 
II.,  set  out  on  a  voyage  round  the  world,  stopping  at 
Rio  Janeiro,  and  reaching  London,  where  both  he  and 
his  wife  took  sick  with  measles  and  died.  His  brother, 
a  boy  of  ten,  succeeded  as  Kamehameha  III.,  Kaahu- 
manu  ruling  as  regent.  Under  the  succeeding  kings 
the  precedent  established  by  Kamehameha  I.  was 
maintained,  a  \voman_continuing  to  hold  the  second 
place  in  the  government,  her  assenfTo  all  public  acts 
being  necessary. 

The  succeeding  events  in  Hawaii  had  largely  to  do 
with  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries  to  maintain  the 
puritanical  code  of  morals  they  had  instituted,  and  the 
attempts  of  dissolute  settlers  and  visiting  sailors  to 
undo  their  work  and  bring  back  the  old  easy  virtue  of 
the  Hawaiian  women.  Dissensions  also  arose  with 
some  Roman  Catholic  missionaries  who  had  made 
their  way  into  the  islands.  The  result  of  the  latter  diffi- 
culty was  a  visit  from  the  French  frigate  Artemise  in 
1839,  whose  commander,  by  threats  of  bombardment, 
forced  the  government  to  consent  to  the  teaching  of 
Catholicism,  and  also  to  the  admission  of  French 
brandy, — the  introduction  of  ardent  spirits  being  pro- 
hibited by  law. 

The  odd  mixture  of  religion  and  brandy  thus 
forced  upon  the  people  had  its  immediate  efifect  in  in- 
undating the  islands  with  lire-water  and  restoring  the 
old  evil  of  general  intemperance.     This  the  govern- 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  233 

ment  now  sought  to  restrain  by  a  system  of  licenses, 
whereupon  another  man-of-war  appeared  with  new 
threats  and  demands. 

A  British  frigate,  the  Carysfort,  appeared  in  1842, 
whose  commander,  on  pretence  of  British  interests 
being  injured,  indulged  in  such  severe  demands  and 
threats  that  the  helpless  government  offered  to  cede 
the  islands  to  Great  Britain,  though  under  protest 
against  the  injustice  of  the  proceeding.  The  result 
was  deplorable.  All  legal  restraint  upon  the  evil  dis- 
posed was  at  an  end,  and  for  five  months  drunkenness 
and  immorality  ruled  supreme. 

This  painful  state  of  affairs  continued  until  July, 
when  Commodore  Kearney  arrived  from  the  United 
States,  and  at  once  issued  a  protest  against  the  seizure 
of  the  islands  and  treated  the  chiefs  as  independent 
princes.  Immediately  afterwards.  Admiral  Thomas, 
a  British  naval  commander,  reached  the  islands  and 
put  an  instant  stop  to  the  proceedings  of  the  captain 
of  the  Carysfort,  reinstating  the  king  in  authority  in 
the  most  formal  manner.  The  date  on  which  this  took 
place,  July  31,  1842,  was  from  that  day  forward  cele- 
brated as  a  day  of  national  thanksgiving  and  rejoicing. 

Meanwhile,  the  Hawaiian  monarch  had  sent  com- 
missioners to  England  and  France  to  represent  the 
interests  of  the  kingdom  at  the  courts  of  those  coun- 
tries. The  final  result  was  a  formal  recognition  by 
England  and  France  of  the  independence  of  the  Ha- 
waiian Islands,  and  an  engagement  never  to  take  pos- 
session of  any  part  of  their  territory.  This  ended  the 
difficulties,  though  at  subsequent  dates  French  frigates 
made  offensive  demands. 

During  this  period  an  important  change  had  taken 


234  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

place  in  the  Hawaiian  government.  Up  to  1839  it 
continued  an  absolute  despotism.  But  in  that  year  the 
king,  yielding  to  the  earnest  persuasions  of  the  Ameri- 
can missionaries,  came  to  a  radical  decision,  signing 
a  Bill  of  Rights  for  the  people.  On  the  8th  of  October, 
1840,  a  second  step  was  taken, — a  constitution  being 
given  under  which  a  system  of  legislative  government 
was  introduced.  There  were  to  be,  in  addition  to  the 
king,  a  House  of  Nobles  of  sixteen  persons,  five  being 
women,  and  a  Council  of  seven  representatives.  Later 
constitutions  and  codes  of  law  w^ere  adopted  in  1845 
and  1852,  all  under  American  influence,  and  each 
making  the  government  more  democratic  than  before. 

Kamehameha  III.  died  in  1854,  after  a  reign  of 
thirty  years.  He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Liholiho 
as  Kamehameha  IV.  He  died  in  1863,  and  his  brother 
ascended  the  throne  as  Kamehameha  V.  With  the 
death  of  the  latter,  at  the  close  of  1872,  the  line  of  the 
Kamehamehas  became  extinct.  It  rested  with  the 
legislature  to  elect  a  new  sovereign  by  ballot,  and 
Prince  Lunalilo,  a  stepson  of  Kamehameha  V.  and  a 
choice  favorite  of  the  people,  was  elected.  Unfortu- 
nately, he  had  a  passion  for  drink,  and  intemperance 
carried  him  ofif  after  a  year's  reign,  another  high  chief, 
Kalakaua,  being  elected  to  succeed  him. 

Under  the  new  monarch  the  finances  fell  into  a  state 
that  seriously  demanded  reform,  and  in  1887  the  king 
dismissed  his  cabinet  and  granted  a  constitution  which 
still  further  curtailed  the  power  of  the  crown,  the 
House  of  Nobles,  formerly  appointed  by  the  king, 
being  now  elected  by  popular  vote. 

Kalakaua  died  in  1891,  and  was  succeeded  by  his 
sister  Liliuokalani.    During  the  reign  of  Kalakaua  the 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  235 

number  of  foreigners  in  the  island  had  largely  in- 
creased, owing  to  the  progress  of  sugar  culture,  and 
many  of  them,  principally  Americans,  took  part  in  the 
government.  This  state  of  affairs  was  not  satisfactory 
to  the  new  queen,  who  had  ambitious  views,  and  she 
sought  to  set  aside  the  provisions  of  the  constitu- 
tion. Ministers  were  appointed  by  her  in  disregard 
of  the  vote  of  the  legislature;  the  interests  of  the 
planters  were  imperilled,  and  she  finally  attempted  to 
annul  the  constitution  and  restore  the  old  power  of  the 
crown.  Among  her  purposes  were  the  establishment 
of  the  Louisiana  lottery  upon  the  island  and  the  im- 
portation of  opium,  as  revenue  measures,  and  in  dis- 
regard of  the  fact  that  they  had  been  constitutionally 
forbidden  on  account  of  their  deleterious  effect  upon 
the  people. 

These  illegal  measures  aroused  the  foreign  element 
in  the  state  and  gave  rise  to  an  insurrectionary  move- 
ment which  resulted  in  the  dethronement  of  the  queen 
in  January,  1893.  A  provisional  government  was 
formed;  United  States  marines  and  sailors  were 
landed  to  protect  the  lives  and  property  of  Americans, 
and  steps  were  taken  looking  towards  the  annexation 
of  Hawaii  to  the  United  States.  A  treaty  for  this  pur- 
pose was  negotiated  and  sent  to  the  Senate,  but  it  was 
withdrawn  by  President  Cleveland  before  action  had 
been  taken  upon  it,  and  the  project  came  to  an  end. 

The  party  of  the  queen  sought  to  restore  her  to  the 
throne,  but  failed;  and  a  subsequent  insurrection  in 
1895  led  to  her  arrest  and  temporary  imprisonment. 
She  left  the  islands  in  1896.  A  republic  was  pro- 
claimed on  July  4,  1894,  under  the  presidency  of  San- 
ford  B.  Dole, — of  American  descent,  though  born  on 


236  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  island, — who  had  been  at  the  head  of  the  provi- 
sional government.  The  next  event  of  importance 
occurred  in  1897.  William  McKinley  having  suc- 
ceeded Grover  Cleveland  as  President  of  the  United 
States,  a  new  treaty  of  annexation  was  prepared  and 
presented  to  Congress.  Action  on  this  was  delayed 
until  1898,  when,  during  the  Spanish-American  war, 
the  treaty  was  adopted  in  Congress  by  joint  resolution, 
and  was  signed  by  the  President  and  became  law  on 
July  6.  The  act  of  annexation  was  completed  on 
August  12,  1898,  when  the  American  flag  was  raised 
over  the  government  buildings  at  Honolulu,  and  Ha- 
waii became  a  definite  part  of  the  United  States. 


11.  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS. 

GEOGRAPHIC/^  RELATIONS. 

The  group  of  islands  with/ which  we  are  now  con- 
cerned, named  the  Sandwich  Islands  by  Captain  Cook, 
in  honor  of  the  Earl  of  Sandwich,  first  lord  of  the 
British  Admiralty,  but  known  in  America  by  the  name 
of  the  principal  island  of  the  group,  Hawaii,  stands 
almost  alone  in  the  north  Pacific  Ocean,  at  a  consider- 
able distance  north  of  the  great  Polynesian  Archi- 
pelago, which  stretches  over  so  vast  a  width  of  the 
southern  seas.  Intermediate  between  America  and 
Asia,  Hawaii  is  2100  miles  distant  from  California  and 
3400  from  Japan,  while  Alaska  lies  3000  miles  to  the 
north  and  New  Zealand  3800  miles  to  the  south.  The 
city  of  Sydney,  Australia,  is  nearly  4500  miles  distant, 
and  Hong-Kong,  China,  is  4950  miles  away.  The 
group  thus  occupies  a  highly  important  position  in  the 
pathway  of  the  rapidly  growing  commerce  of  the  Pa- 
cific, and  must  prove  of  the  utmost  value  to  the  mer- 
chantmen of  the  coming  age,  on  their  way  between 
the  busy  ports  of  America,  Asia,  Australia,  and  the 
multitudinous  Polynesian  islands. 

The  Hawaiian  group  consists  of  twelve  islands,  most 
of  them  small,  and  four  of  them  barren  and  unin- 
habited. There  are  in  addition  many  islets,  mostly 
barren  rocks.  Like  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico,  the  group 
lies  just  within  the  tropics,  its  northern  boundary 
being  22°  16',  north  latitude.    On  the  south  it  extends 

237 


238  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

to  1 8°  55',  north  latitude,  while  it  is  bounded  east  and 
west  by  154°  40'  and  160°  30',  west  longitude.  The 
total  area  of  the  group  is  estimated  at  o74Q'^  square 
miles,  an  area  about  1000  square  miles  less  than  that 
of  New  Jersey.  Of  this  area  the  large  island  of  Hawaii 
occupies  nearly  two-thirds,  the  others  being  much 
smaller.  ^^k 

The  general  direction^Bie  group  is  in  a  line  from 
southeast  to  northwest,  Hawaii  occupying  the  most 
southerly  position.  Twenty-five  miles  to  the  north- 
west of  Hawaii  lies  Maui,  a  few  miles  distant  from 
whose  western  coast  are  the  small  islands  of  Lanai  and 
Kahulaui,  and  nine  miles  from  its  northern  end  the 
long,  narrow  island  of  Molokai.  Twenty-three  miles 
northwest  of  the  latter  is  Oahu;  sixty-seven  miles 
from  which,  still  to  the  northwest,  is  Kauai.  The  final 
island  of  the  group  is  Niihau,  fifteen  miles  west  of 
Kauai.  The  four  uninhabited  islands  are  named 
Nihoa,  Kaula,  Lehua,  and  Molokini,  to  which  some 
add  Leyson  Island,  lying  800  miles  to  the  west.  The 
following  table  will  give  a  conception  of  the  compara- 
tive dimensions  of  these  islands: 


Islands.  Length. 

Miles. 

Hawaii loo 

Maui 54 

Kahulaui 12 

Lanai 20 

Molokai 35 

Oahu 35 

Kauai 30 

Niihau 20 


Approximate 

Width. 

Area. 

Miles 

Sq 

iiare  Miles. 

90 

4210 

25 

760 

5 

63 

9 

150 

7 

270 

21 

6cx> 

28 

590 

5 

97 

PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  239 

GEOLOGICAL  FORMATION. 

Geologically,  the  Hawaiian  Islands  differ  radically 
from  those  we  have  hitherto  considered,  they  being 
volcanic  in  origin,  or  only  to  a  minor  extent  coralline. 
They  owe  their  existence  to  a  remarkable  exercise  of 
the  earth's  igneous  agencies,  which  are  still  actively  at 
work,  for  the  volcanoes  of  Hawaii  are  without  parallel 
upon  the  earth  in  size  and  energy.  As  a  consequence, 
the  rock  structure  is  volcanic,  being  mainly  composed 
of  successive  layers  of  lava,  while  the  soil  is  made  up 
of  disintegrated  lava,  scoria,  and  sand  of  volcanic 
origin. 

Yet  the  coral-reef  builders,  so  multitudinous  and 
active  in  the  Pacific  waters,  have  had  a  share,  though 
a  small  one,  in  the  formation  of  these  islands,  whose 
shores  are  to  some  extent  bordered  by  reefs,  double 
in  some  instances.  These  appear  only  along  a  portion 
of  the  coast  lines,  and  are  of  much  smaller  extent  than 
those  bordering  the  islands  of  the  South  Pacific. 
Ledges  of  compact  limestone  are  found  at  a  height  of 
100  feet  above  sea-level,  indicating  ancient  uplifts,  due, 
perhaps,  to  volcanic  forces.  / 

As  may  be  judged  from  the  igneotis  origin  of  the 
islands,  they  display  a  great  poverty  in  mineral  species, 
their  rocks  being  made  up  of  the  products  of  eruption 
and  coral  growth,  and  consisting  of  basalt,  lava,  coral- 
rock,  and  sandstone.  On  the  tops  and  in  the  interior 
of  the  mountains  there  is  a  variety  of  trachyte,  and  the 
bulk  of  the  mountains  seems  made  up  of  phonolites 
and  graystones,  forming  a  complete  series  from  basalt 
to  trachyte.  The  sands  and  sandstones  owe  their 
origin  to  disintegrated  coral  rock.    The  scanty  list  of 


240  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

mineral  substances  includes  sulphur,  pyrites,  common 
salt,  sal  ammoniac,  hematite,  quartz,  felspar,  gypsum, 
copperas,  nitre,  limonite,  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  and 
sulphurous  acids,  and  a  few  others,  all  of  volcanic 
origin. 

MOUNTAIN  SYSTEM. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  are  generally  of  considerable 
elevation,  and  they  possess  mountain  peaks  of  great 
height.  While  Niihau  is  generally  low,  though  with 
high  cliflfs  on  its  eastern  side,  the  small  neighboring 
island  of  Lehua  has  an  elevation  of  looo  feet,  and  the 
upland  region  of  Kauai  constitutes  a  table-land  of 
4000  feet  in  height,  reaching  the  sea  on  the  west  in 
a  precipice  2000  feet  high.  In  the  centre  of  the  island 
rises  a  basaltic  mountain  5000  feet  high. 

Oahu  is  traversed  by  two  parallel  ranges  of  hills, 
separated  by  a  low  plain.  Of  these  the  eastern  range 
is  much  the  longest,  and  is  greatly  broken,  lateral 
spurs  extending  inland  with  deep  ravines  between 
them.  On  the  ocean  side  a  nearly  vertical  wall  of 
rock  extends  for  thirty  miles  without  a  break.  The 
highest  point  on  the  island  is  the  peak  of  Kaula,  4060 
feet,  in  the  western  range. 

The  long,  narrow  extent  of  Molokai  is  traversed  by 
a  ridge  of  hills,  with  lateral  spurs  inclosing  ravines. 
There  are  some  lofty  broken  peaks  at  the  western  end, 
the  greatest  elevation  being  3500  feet.  Maui  is  made 
up  of  two  mountains,  connected  by  a  sandy  isthmus, 
so  low  that  a  few  feet  of  subsidence  would  convert  the 
island  into  two.  The  lowest  of  these  peaks,  that  to  the 
southeast,  is  5820  feet  high.  Haleakala,  the  north- 
west mountain,  is  a  nearly  extinct  volcano  of  extraor- 
dinary dimensions,  which  has  an  ,  elevation  of  10,032 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  241 

feet.     Of  the  two  small  neighboring  islands,  Kahulaui 

reaches  an  elevation  of  11 30  feet,  and  Lanai  has  a 

mountain  3000  feet  high. 
Hawaii,  an  island  of  irregular  triangular  shape,  with 

sides  eighty-five,  seventy-five,  and  sixty-five  geo- 
graphical miles  in  length,  is  almost  wholly  made  up  of 
the  sloping  sides  of  its  four  volcanic  peaks,  though  at 
places  bold  clififs,  1000  to  3000  feet  high,  front  the  sea. 
These  peaks  comprise  Mauna  Kea  (13,805  feet)  on  the 
north,  the  highest  elevation  in  the  Pacific  Ocean; 
Mauna  Loa  (13,675  feet)  on  the  south;  Mauna  Huala- 
lai  (8275  feet)  on  the  west;  and  Mauna  Kohala  (5505 
feet)  on  the  northwest.  From  these  lofty  heights  the 
land  slopes  gently  down  on  all  sides  towards  the  coast, 
while  between  them  lies  a  plain  of  many  square  miles 
in  extent.  The  sides  of  Mauna  Kea  are  rent  by  numer- 
ous deep  ravines,  in  which  flow  streams,  eighty-five  in 
number,  at  depths  of  1800  to  2000  feet.  As  the  in- 
tervening ridges  reach  the  coast  in  high  precipices, 
this  part  of  the  island  cannot  be  traversed  without 
great  labor  and  difficulty,  it  being  necessary  to  descend 
into  and  ascend  from  the  ravines  by  narrow  and 
dangerous  paths. 

VOLCANOES. 

Though  the  Hawaiian  group  is  of  volcanic  origin, 
most  of  its  volcanoes  have  become  extinct;  the  only 
active  ones  remaining  being  those  on  the  island  of 
Hawaii;  though  nearly  all  the  islands  possess  craters, 
some  of  which  appear  to  have  been  active  at  a  recent 
period.  The  tremendous  agency  by  which  these 
islands  were  elevated  acted  in  a  line  extending  south- 
east and   northwest;    some  writers  maintaining  that 

16 


242  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  first  and  most  vigorous  force  was  exercised  in  the 
southeast,  yielding  the  great  elevations  of  Hav^aii; 
while  others  hold  that  volcanic  action  began  in  the 
northwest,  its  energy  culminating  in  Hawaii,  and  suc- 
cessively dying  away  in  the  other  islands. 

Extinct  volcanoes,  of  every  age,  size,  and  shape, 
are  common  throughout  the  group;  and  the  small 
island  of  Molokini  is  merely  a  low-lying  crater,  with 
one  side  open  to  the  sea.  Of  these  ancient  volcanoes 
much  the  most  remarkable  is  Haleakala,  on  Maui, 
which  forms  a  great  dome-shaped  mass  of  ninety  miles 
circumference  at  base  and  rising  with  a  gentle  slope 
to  its  summit,  where  is  presented  the  most  stupendous 
crater  upon  the  earth.  This  immense  cavity  has  a  cir- 
cumference of  eighteen  or  twenty  miles  and  an  ex- 
treme depth  of  2720  feet,  its  area  being  about  sixteen 
square  miles.  At  intervals  over  the  bottom  rise  six- 
teen cones  from  500  to  600  feet  in  height;  and  there 
are  two  great  gaps  in  the  crater  walls  through  which 
vast  floods  of  lava  seem  to  have  poured  at  a  compara- 
tively modern  date. 

Of  the  mountain  elevations  of  Hawaii,  Mauna  Kea 
(White  Mountain),  the  loftiest  of  all,  is  extinct  as  a 
volcano,  all  its  lavas  being  ancient.  The  summit  of 
Mauna  Hualalai  is  covered  with  craters  700  to  1000 
feet  wide  and  300  to  500  deep,  with  vertical  walls.  On 
the  sides  of  the  mountain  are  more  than  150  volcanic 
cones,  and  the  mountain  was  in  eruption  as  late  as 
1801,  when  a  flood  of  lava  made  its  way  to  the  coast, 
where  it  filled  up  a  deep  bay. 

Mauna  Loa  (Long  Mountain)  is  still  an  active  vol- 
cano, pouring  out  at  intervals  of  a  few  years  vast  floods 
of  lava,  which  occasionally  reach  the  sea,  at  a  distance 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  243 

of  many  miles.  On  its  lofty  summit  is  a  circular 
crater,  perfect  in  outline  and  8000  feet  in  diameter,  its 
walls  being  nearly  vertical,  with  a  depth  of  from  500 
to  600  feet.  The  eruption  of  1843  discharged  a  mighty 
flood  of  fiery  lava,  which  formed  three  streams  five 
or  six  miles  wide  and  more  than  twenty  miles  long. 
In  that  of  1859  the  flow  continued  for  two  months, 
and  a  river  of  liquid  rock,  from  one  to  five  miles  wide 
and  of  considerable  depth,  followed  a  winding  course 
of  fifty  miles  in  length,  ending  at  the  sea. 

The  most  stupendous  of  existing  volcanoes,  how- 
ever, is  that  of  Kilauea,  a  mountain  sixteen  miles  to 
the  southeast  of  Mauna  Loa,  and  much  less  elevated, 
its  crater  being  4400  feet  above  the  level  of  the  sea. 
This  huge  depression  is  oval  in  shape,  with  a  circum- 
ference of  nine  miles  and  a  depth  of  500  feet.  Its 
lava-covered  floor  is  broken  by  a  second  depression, 
approaching  a  mile  in  width,  and,  when  empty,  of 
about  1000  feet  in  depth.  This  great  lake-like  cavity 
is  usually  well  filled  with  liquid  lava,  the  fiery  flood  at 
times  occupying  its  whole  extent,  boiling  and  tossing 
in  lurid  waves,  and  sending  up  fierce  jets  of  smoke 
and  flame.  It  rises  and  falls,  at  times  ascending  high, 
enough  to  overflow  the  wide  crater-floor  above,  and 
at  others  sinking  to  the  bottom,  in  some  connection  of 
sympathy  with  the  eruptions  of  Mauna  Loa.  On 
some  occasions  it  seems  drawn  off  by  a  subterranean 
channel. 

Such  an  event  took  place  in  1840,  the  bed  of  the 
crater  sinking  300  feet,  while  the  lava  flowed  under- 
ground to  the  district  of  Puna,  where  it  burst  out  in  a 
flood  from  one  to  three  miles  wide  and  from  twelve  to 
two  hundred  feet  deep,  destroying  forests,  plantations, 


244  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

aiul  villages,  and  finally  leaping  into  the  sea  from  a 
height  of  fifty  feet,  in  a  magnificent  fire-cataract  a  mile 
in  width.  For  three  weeks  this  gleaming  cascade  con- 
tinued, the  ocean  boiling  and  raging  beneath  it,  while 
myriads  of  dead  fish  floated  on  the  waves  and  the 
glare  was  visible  a  hundred  miles  at  sea. 

In  1868  a  similar  event  took  place  from  the  crater 
of  Mauna  Loa,  the  earth  quaking  and  quivering  as  the 
river  of  lava  followed  its  subterranean  channel  and 
finally  burst  out  on  a  wooded  hill  at  Kahuka,  3800 
feet  high.  Here  it  rent  a  fissure  nearly  a  mile  long, 
from  which  the  crimson  flood  shot  upward  in  an  ex- 
traordinary fountain  to  a  height  of  500  or  600  feet, 
sending  up  vast  columns  of  fiery  lava  and  red-hot 
rocks  100  tons  in  weight.  Thence  the  glowing  stream 
rushed  onward  to  the  sea,  finally  pouring  over  a  preci- 
pice 500  feet  high  in  a  frightful  cataract  of  fire  half  a 
mile  wide.  By  this  eruption,  4000  acres  of  valuable 
pasture  land  were  buried  under  barren  lava,  and  a 
much  wider  area  of  fine  forest  was  destroyed.  A  simi- 
lar event,  though  on  a  smaller  scale,  took  place  in 
1866. 

These  few  instances  will  serve  as  examples  of 
the  wonderful  character  of  the  Hawaiian  volcanoes. 
Other  eruptions  have  taken  place  since  the  dates 
given;  and  in  1877  the  lava  flood  seems  to  have 
reached  the  sea  under  ground,  causing  a  submarine 
eruption  in  which  flames  and  jets  of  steam  burst  up- 
ward from  the  sea,  while  lumps  of  pumice-stone  were 
thrown  up  and  floated  on  the  waves. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  245 

PLAINS  AND  VALLEYS. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  possess  little  that  can 
properly  be  called  lowlands,  the  mountains  in  many 
cases  sloping  down  to  the  sea-coast,  or  reaching  the 
sea  in  lofty  headlands.  In  some  localities  plains  ex- 
tend from  the  mountain  foot,  while  valleys  and  ravines 
lie  between  the  lateral  spurs,  and  there  are  elevated 
plains  in  the  interior.  The  great  plain  lying  between 
the  volcanoes  of  Hawaii  has  served  as  a  field  for  the 
outflow  of  lava,  being  intersected  by  streams  from  the 
three  neighboring  volcanoes.  One  of  the  most  attrac- 
tive of  the  valleys  is  that  of  Nuuana,  running  up  from 
Honolulu  into  the  hill  region,  and  with  its  grassy 
slopes,  its  luxuriant  foliage,  its  bridged  rivulets,  its 
beautiful  views,  presenting  a  most  charming  aspect. 
It  is  a  favorite  ride  for  the  residents  of  the  capital,  and 
from  its  summit  yields  a  magnificent  outlook  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  island.  There  are  other  delightful 
valleys  on  Oahu,  which  present  a  rare  combination  of 
peaks,  clifTs,  ravines,  cascades,  and  rich  vegetation. 

Kauai,  of  whose  lofty  table-land  we  have  spoken, 
possesses  numerous  deep  valleys,  whose  woods  and 
water-falls  give  them  a  highly  picturesque  aspect.  In 
one  sea-shore  locality  of  this  island  exists  a  hill  of  cal- 
careous sand  which  has  attracted  much  attention  from 
the  curious  sound  it  makes  when  disturbed,  a  sort  of 
barking  noise,  from  which  it  has  derived  the  title  of 
"  barking  sands." 

Niihau  is  the  least  elevated  of  the  islands,  two-thirds 
of  its  area  consisting  of  a  low  plain,  whose  surface  is 
made  up  of  an  uplifted  coral  reef  and  material  washed 
down  from  the  mountains.  It  is  mainly  devoted  to 
grazing. 


246  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Something  here  needs  to  be  said  of  the  lava  which 
makes  up  so  much  of  the  surface  of  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  varying  from  that  which  has  become  decom- 
posed into  soil  and  that  still  fresh  from  recent  outflow. 
The  latter  is  confined  to  Hawaii,  and  is  divided  into 
three  classes,  according  to  its  surface  aspect.  The 
pahoehoe,  or  velvety  lava,  has  a  smooth  surface,  rising 
into  billowy  masses  and  greatly  folded  and  contorted, 
due  to  its  flowing  down  gentle  slopes  and  twisting 
around  or  heaping  over  irregularities  of  surface.  The 
a-a,  or  cinder-like  lava,  on  the  contrary,  is  very  hard 
and  rough;  its  surface  presenting  a  multitude  of  up- 
right, rugged,  sharp  points  that  render  it  almost  im- 
passable. It  closely  approaches  in  appearance  a  heap 
of  furnace  cinders.  It  arises,  perhaps,  from  lava  less 
fluid  than  pahoehoe,  and  full  of  solid  points  or  centres 
of  cooling;  its  roughness  is  probably,  in  a  measure, 
due  to  the  effect  of  obstructions  to  its  flow,  causing  the 
lava  to  heap  up  into  rugged  masses  with  angles  and 
points  of  obsidian-like  sharpness.  The  third  form  is 
marked  by  clinkers  or  scoria,  and  is  rough  and  covered 
with  fragments.  It  is  found  where  the  lava  has  passed 
through  woods  or  been  impeded  by  inequalities  in  the 
ground,  or  broken  by  the  explosion  of  heated-air  cavi- 
ties in  the  older  lava  below.  Lava  in  some  form  or 
other  constitutes  the  main  element  of  the  surface  of 
the  islands,  and  when  in  its  rough  form  renders  travel 
very. difficult. 

The  islands  are  too  small  to  contain  any  rivers  of 
importance,  though  some  of  them  are  well  supplied 
with  streams.  Those  which  flow  down  the  deep 
ravines  of  Hawaii  have  been  mentioned,  some  sixty 
reaching  the  sea  in  the  district  of  Hilo.    There  are  also 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  247 

numerous  permanent  streams  on  Oahu,  which,  de- 
scending from  the  highlands,  form  cascades  and 
water-falls,  and  with  their  numerous  branches  give 
excellent  opportunity  for  irrigation. 

A  phenomenal  feature  is  the  remarkable  salt  lake 
named  Aliapaakai,  four  miles  from  Honolulu  and 
one  mile  from  the  sea.  It  is  oval  in  form  and  about  a 
mile  in  circuit,  occupying,  probably,  the  remains  of  an 
ancient  crater.  Its  general  depth  is  but  eighteen 
inches,  and  it  forms  a  natural  evaporating-pan  for  the 
production  of  salt,  which  at  times  collects  upon  its 
surface  with  sufficient  thickness  to  bear  a  man's 
weight.  It  seems  to  be  connected  with  the  sea,  there 
being  a  hole  in  its  centre  to  which  no  bottom  has  been 
found,  while  its  level  seems  slightly  afifected  by  the 
tides.  But  the  mystery  is  that  its  surface  stands 
several  feet  above  sea-level,  being  sustained  in  some 
manner  unknown. 

HARBORS. 

The  principal  harbor  of  the  Hawaiian  group  is 
Honolulu,  on  the  southwest  coast  of  Oahu,  which  is 
formed  by  an  indentation  of  the  coast,  protected  by  a 
broad  coral  reef.  The  harbor  is  a  spacious  one;  but 
its  use  by  large  vessels  has  long  been  limited  by  the 
depth  of  the  channel  through  the  reef,  which  was  for- 
merly but  twenty-two  and  a  half  feet.  As  a  result, 
vessels  of  greater  draught  had  to  lie  in  the  outer  road- 
stead, where  good  anchorage  is  to  be  found,  except 
during  the  prevalence  of  a  south  wind,  or  kona.  The 
harbor  has  been  greatly  improved  of  recent  years  by 
the  cutting  of  a  channel  through  the  reef,  200  feet  in 
width  and  thirty  in  depth  at  mean  low  water.     The 


248  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

inner  harbor  affords  abundant  space  for  shipping,  and 
has  been  dredged  to  a  depth  of  twenty-eight  feet  for 
more  than  500  feet  along  the  Pacific  Mail  dock. 

There  are  other  accessible  harbors  on  the  island 
which  might  be  made  use  of  if  necessary,  especially 
that  formed  by  the  estuary  of  Pearl  River,  closed  out- 
wardly b}'  a  coral  reef  over  which  only  small  vessels 
can  pass,  but  deep  and  commodious  enough  within  to 
shelter  all  the  vessels  of  the  Pacific.  A  channel  cut 
through  the  reef  would  open  the  way  to  a  harbor  much 
more  capacious  than  that  of  Honolulu,  from  which  it 
is  but  six  miles  distant. 

Pearl  Harbor  was  granted  by  the  Hawaiian  govern- 
ment, in  1884,  to  the  United  States  as  a  coaling  and 
repair  station  for  American  vessels,  and  was  con- 
sidered preferable  to  that  of  Honolulu  for  naval  pur- 
poses. It  has,  however,  not  yet  been  rendered  avail- 
able by  cutting  a  channel  through  the  reef. 

The  island  of  Maui  has  its  harbor  at  Lahaina.  a 
roomy  and  sheltered  roadstead  at  present  but  little, 
visited,  but  formerly  the  place  of  call  for  whalers  when 
they  formed  the  leading  agencies  in  the  trade  of  the 
islands.  Hilo,  on  the  east  side  of  Hawaii,  forms  the 
port  of  that  island;  though  it  is  little  more  than  an 
open  roadstead,  a  coral  reef,  with  entrance  channel, 
affording  partial  protection.  In  addition  to  the  Ha- 
waiian harbors,  the  roadsteads  in  many  places  yield 
good  anchorage,  free  from  danger  of  hidden  rocks,  and 
with  favoring  winds  during  the  greater  part  of  the 
year. 

CLIMATE. 

Tropical  as  is  the  situation  of  Hawaii,  its  climate 
seems  rather  to  belong  to  the  temperate  than  to  the 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  249 

torrid  zone.  While  generally  warm,  it  is  highly  salu- 
brious; the  great  healthfulness  of  the  islands  being 
probably  due  to  the  fresh  and  pure  breezes  which  seem 
to  blow  continually  from  one  c^uarter  or  other.  The 
temperature  is  remarkably  equable,  and  the  weather 
so  uniform  that  the  natives  have  no  word  in  their 
language  to  express  that  which  is  so  common  a  sub- 
ject of  conversation  elsewhere.  Americans  and  Euro- 
peans can  work,  as  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  they  do 
work,  in  the  open  air  at  all  seasons  of  the  year.  This 
cannot  be  said  of  other  countries  lying  in  the  same 
latitudes.  At  Calcutta,  for  instance,  which  lies  farther 
north  than  any  Hawaiian  island,  Europeans  find  it  im- 
possible to  perform  hard  physical  labor. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Honolulu  is  about 
75°  P.,  the  mean  of  the  coldest  month  being  62°.  and 
of  the  hottest  month  81°.  The  diurnal  range  of  the 
thermometer  is  twelve  degrees.  During  twelve  years, 
the  extremes  of  temperature  in  the  shade  were  90° 
and  53°.  The  seasons  correspond  in  date  with  our 
own, — January  being  the  coldest  month,  June  the 
warmest. 

For  those  who  desire  to  escape  from  the  summer 
warmth,  the  mountains  are  everywhere  near  at  hand; 
an  hour's  ride  from  the  capital  up  the  Nuuanu  Valley 
bringing  one  into  a  region  of  cooler  air  and  more 
bracing  wind.  Mountain  Retreat,  at  an  elevation  of 
3000  feet  above  Lahaina,  has  a  temperature  varying 
from  40°  to  75°  F. ;  and  at  Waimea,  Hawaii,  is  an 
average  temperature  of  64°.  Rains  are  very  frequent 
on  the  mountains,  and  on  the  upland  region  of  Kauai, 
at  4000  feet  elevation,  fires  are  required  even  in  mid- 
summer.    Snow  is  constantly  to  be  seen  on  the  lofty 


250  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

peaks,  and  has  given  its  name  to  ^laiina  Kea,  or  White 
^Mountain.  It  is  to  the  trade-winds  that  Hawaii  ewes 
its  salubrious  and  agreeable  climate.  For  nine  months 
of  the  year,  from  March  to  November,  these  blow 
steadily  from  the  northeast;  the  wind  being  softened 
and  made  equable  by  its  passage  over  2000  miles  of 
ocean.  It  is  not  always  mild  and  gentle.  At  times  it 
grows  tempestuous ;  but  it  is  always  full  of  the  essence 
of  healthfulness. 

On  the  leeward  side  of  the  islands,  where  the  trade- 
wind  is  broken  by  the  mountain  heights,  there  is  a 
refreshing  alternation  of  land  and  sea  breezes;  the 
land  breeze,  or  maniuka,  sometimes  descending  the 
mountain  sides  with  such  violence  as  to  do  much 
damage  to  buildings  an^  shipping. 

During  the  winter  months  the  winds  are  uncertain, 
there  being  at  times  calms  of  several  weeks'  duration. 
Occasionally  there  comes  a  damp,  briny  wind  from 
the  south,  now  bringing  heavy  rain,  now  a  close  and 
stifling  air.  The  Hawaiians  call  this  "  the  sick  wind," 
rheumatism  and  influenza  coming  with  it.  Fortu- 
nately, it  is  exceptional;  and  the  winter  season  is 
usually  marked  by  cloudless  skies  and  a  dry  and 
bracing  atmosphere. 

RAINFALL. 

The  fall  of  rain  is  in  a  considerable  measure  confined 
to  the  windward  side  of  the  islands,  the  mountains 
largely  draining  the  winds  of  their  vapor,  so  that  they 
have  little  left  for  the  leeward  shores.  In  consequence, 
much  less  rain  falls  on  this  side  of  the  islands  than  on 
the  opposite,  and  the  sky  is  usually  cloudless.  Here, 
indeed,  there  is  not  enough  rain  for  agricultural  pur- 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  251 

poses,  and  irrigation  needs  to  be  resorted  to,  while  the 
persistent  sunshine  renders  the  cUmate  somewhat  en- 
ervating. 

The  vapor  brought  by  the  trade-winds  is  condensed 
by  the  mountain  masses,  showers  and  mists  being 
habitual  in  their  summit  regions,  while  the  two  lofty 
peaks  of  Hawaii  are  rarely  free  from  a  belt  of  cloud. 
Rains  here  are  very  frequent,  and  the  east  side  of  the 
islands  generally  is  abundantly  watered.  Hilo,  for 
instance,  on  the  east  coast  of  Hawaii,  has  an  annual 
rainfall  of  eighty  inches,  and  sometimes  more  than 
twice  that  quantity;  while  Honolulu,  on  the  south- 
west coast  of  Oahu,  has  an  average  fall  of  about  thirty- 
eight  inches. 

The  most  disagreeable  season  of  the  year  in  the  lee- 
ward districts  comes  at  the  time  of  change  of  the  mon- 
soon, or  rather  during  its  interruption,  when  violent 
winds  sweep  through  Honolulu,  and  rains  of  tropical 
fierceness  fall.  These  do  useful  work  in  flushing  the 
streets,  and  the  winds  aid  in  purifying  the  air,  while 
the  storms  are  not  ungrateful  breaks  to  the  long  inter- 
vals of  settled  calm. 

DISEASES. 

Though  the  native  population  has  decreased  at  a 
very  rapid  rate  during  the  past  century,  this  is  not  due 
to  any  normal  unhealthfulness  of  the  islands,  but  to 
diseases  brought  by  the  whites,  such  as  measles,  in- 
fluenza, dysentery,  small-pox,  and  others,  which  have 
swept  over  the  islands  like  devastating  epidemics,  and 
have  had  much  to  do  with  the  rapid  decrease  in  popu- 
lation. The  most  dreaded  disease  of  the  island,  the 
terrible  leprosy,  is  also  of  foreign  introduction,  prob- 


252  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

ably  brought  in  from  China.  The  first  case  was  dis- 
covered in  1853,  and  by  1864  it  had  become  alarmingly 
prevalent;  its  rapid  spread  being  due  to  its  contagious 
character  and  the  carelessness  of  the  people. 

The  policy  of  isolating  lepers  was  adopted  by  the 
government  in  January,  1865,  and  in  the  autumn  of 
that  year  lands  were  purchased  on  the  north  side  of  the 
island  of  Molokai  for  a  leper  settlement.  This  district 
is  a  peninsula,  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  the  ocean, 
and  on  the  south  shut  in  by  a  precipitous  mountain, 
2000  to  3000  feet  high.  The  law  of  isolation  was 
strongly  opposed,  and  was  not  carried  into  efifect 
until  1873.  All  who  show  the  least  symptom  of  lep- 
rosy are  now  removed  thither,  and  one  might  spend 
his  life  in  the  remainder  of  Hawaii  and  never  see  a 
leper. 

Aside  from  these  introduced  diseases,  which  may 
be  largely  eradicated  by  sanitary  precautions,  the 
islands  are  markedly  healthful,  and  the  genial  climate 
of  Honolulu  and  other  places  on  their  shores  is  found 
highly  favorable  to  invalids  suffering  from  pulmonary 
complaints. 


••z 


IIL  NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS. 

FOREST  AND  FRUIT  TREES. 

The  approach  to  the  isles  of  Hawaii  from  the  west- 
ern or  leeward  side  gives  one  a  conception  the  reverse 
of  that  looked  for  from  tropical  islands.  Instead  of  a 
riotous  luxuriance  of  verdure,  the  traveller  sees  heaps 
of  arid  hills,  rugged  and  repellent,  looking  hot  and 
red  in  the  sunlight,  and  with  scarcely  a  trace  of  green 
except  in  their  gorges  and  ravines.  After  landing  at 
Honolulu,  one  still  sees  in  the  distance  the  same 
aspect,  that  of  bare,  red  and  yellow,  lifeless  slopes, 
lava-covered,  yielding  only  a  dry,  parched  vegetation, 
on  which  cattle  will  not  feed  except  in  case  of  need. 
All  looks  grim  and  forbidding,  and  strangely  unlike 
the  ordinary  appearance  of  the  isles  of  the  tropical 
Pacific. 

The  conception  thus  received  is  a  misleading  one. 
On  the  opposite  or  rainy  side  of  the  island  there  is  an 
abundance  of  vegetation,  and  forests  clothe  the  moun- 
tain slopes  to  their  summits;  while  even  on  the  arid 
side  many  of  the  valleys  and  ravines  are  rich  with 
tropical  verdure.  Of  the  forest  trees,  the  most  striking 
indigenous  form  is  the  knkui,  or  candle-nut  tree,  with 
its  silvery  foliage  and  its  masses  of  white  blossoms. 
Its  nuts  have  very  oily  kernels,  which  are  strung  to- 
gether and  converted  into  candles  by  the  natives,  each 
nut  kindling  the  next  as  it  burns  down. 

Another  interesting  native  tree  is  a  species  of  the 
pandanus,   or   screw-pine,   which    here    grows   luxu- 

253 


254  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

riantly,  attainino^  a  heig^lit  of  twenty-five  or  thirty  feet, 
and  bearing  great  whorls  of  long,  drooping  leaves  and 
an  abundance  of  large,  heavy  fruits.  These,  shaped 
like  the  pineapple,  are  made  up  of  sections  of  a  rich 
golden  color,  containing  an  edible  pulp.  Sandal- 
wood, which  was  once  a  plentiful  product  of  the 
islands,  has  been  practically  exhausted.  It  had  the 
ill  fortune  to  find  an  active  market  and  to  yield  much 
of  the  royal  revenue,  and  was  cut  with  such  wasteful 
improvidence  as  to  destroy  the  supply.  The  cocoa-nut 
palm,  that  universal  tenant  of  the  tropics,  is  found 
abundantly  in  the  region  of  the  coasts. 

In  ascending  from  Hilo  to  the  crater  of  Kilauea 
the  traveller  passes  through  a  typical  Hawaiian  forest, 
here  four  miles  in  width,  made  up  of  the  trees  named, 
together  with  the  koa  (acacia),  of  great  industrial  value 
from  its  hard,  heavy,  and  handsomely  grained  wood; 
the  hibiscus,  with  its  bluish-green  foliage  and  lemon- 
colored  blossoms;  two  native  species  of  palm,  and 
numerous  ferns,  including  five  species  of  tree  ferns, 
some  of  them  with  stems  twenty  feet  in  height.  Or- 
chids, so  plentiful  in  parts  of  the  tropics,  are  here  rare, 
only  three  species  having  been  found. 

The  flowering  shrubs  and  fruit-bearing  trees  in- 
clude, in  addition  to  those  named,  the  ohia,  the  pink- 
blossomed  Malacca  apple,  which  bears  a  juicy  and 
pulpy  but  insipid  fruit;  the  mairi,  a  very  fragrant 
plant;  the  ohcio,  the  shrub  who'se  juicy  and  agreeable 
berries  have  long  been  sacred  to  the  goddess  of  the 
volcano;  the  wild  plantain,  and  various  other  shrubs 
and  trees. 

An  unusual  diversity  of  parasitic  plants  is  found 
among  the  trees  of  the  forest,  among  them  the  great 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  255 

birds'-nest  fern,  which  may  be  seen  snugly  niched 
in  the  upper  boughs  of  the  pandanus  and  other 
trees,  beautiful  with  its  bright  glossy  fronds.  Vines 
are  innumerable,  and  succeed  in  rendering  it  a  some- 
what difficult  operation  to  traverse  the  forest,  tangled 
lianas  of  all  kinds  growing  in  bewildering  abundance. 
One  of  the  most  notable  is  the  Ic,  which  trails  over 
the  highest  trees,  hanging  iu/twisted  and  contorted 
festoons,  and  bearing  its  foliJ^e  in  large  tufts.  In  the 
centre  of  each  tuft  are  several  scarlet  buds,  sur- 
rounded by  a  group  of  scarlet  leaves,  the  whole  having 
the  efifect  of  a  large  and  beautiful  blossom. 

Fruits,  native  and  introduced,  are  numerous  and 
abundant.  Strawberries  and  raspberries  grow  plenti- 
fully on  the  highlands,  large  of  fruit,  but  less  luscious 
than  our  home  product.  The  bread-fruit,  plantain, 
and  banana  are  common,  the  last  existing  in  some 
sixty  varieties  in  dififerent  sections.  The  mango  grows 
well,  but  its  fruit  is  not  a  success,  being  poor  in  pulp 
and  with  a  turpentine  flavor,  perhaps  due  to  lack  of 
care  in  selection  and  culture,  since  the  introduced 
mango  of  Tahiti  and  the  Philippines  is  a  delicious 
fruit. 

Some  exotic  growths  have  thrived  inconveniently 
well.  The  guava,  for  instance,  grows  wild  in  the 
forests,  and  forms  impenetrable  thickets  which  cover 
large  tracts  of  country.  Another  introduced  plant,  the 
lantana,  has  become  a  veritable  nuisance.  This  plant, 
an  admired  and  delicate  hot-house  treasure  in  colder 
climates,  grows  here  so  profusely  as  to  form  dense 
thickets,  forbidding  passage  by  their  thorns,  and  has 
become  so  thoroughly  at  home  that  it  seems  impos- 
sible to  eradicate. 


256  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Among  the  plants  introduced  from  America  is  the 
prickly-pear  cactus,  which  now  covers  abundantly  the 
waste  spaces  in  the  arid  west,  with  whose  barrenness 
its  aspect  is  closely  in  keeping.  Australia  has  fur- 
nished the  eucalyptus,  which  has  flourished  so  well  as 
to  have  become  a  feature  of  the  landscape.  Another 
of  the  widely  present  exotics  is  the  bean-bearing 
algaroba,  or  carob-tree,  introduced  by  the  French 
missionaries,  and  now  forming  welcome  forests  on  the 
lava-strewn  slopes.  It  is  about  the  only  plant  that 
takes  kindly  to  the  lava,  in  which  it  roots  and  over 
which  it  flourishes  and  multiplies.  It  has,  in  conse- 
quence, been  designated  a  "  blessing  of  the  w^astes." 

Among  the  fruit-bearing  plants  may  be  named  the 
papaya,  with  its  bright  yellow  fruits,  of  the  size  of  a 
muskmelon,  edible  either  raw  or  cooked,  and  making 
delicious  pastries;  the  orange,  lime,  citron,  fig,  cus- 
tard-apple, rose-apple,  and  others  of  foreign  origin, 
but  many  of  which  grow  here  like  natives  of  the  soil. 

In  certain  sections  of  the  islands  marvels  of  vege- 
table growth  may  be  seen.  Maui,  for  instance,  pos- 
sesses what  is  claimed  to  be  the  largest  apple-orchard 
in  the  world.  This  is  a  wide-spreading  forest  of  ohias 
(the  native  or  Malayan  apple),  which  stretches  over  the 
Koolau  wilderness  from  the  mountains  to  the  sea, 
and  in  the  blossoming  season  is  gorgeous  with  its 
pink  and  rosy  hues.  Thesetrees  are  from  forty  to 
fifty  feet  in  height,  and  from  July  to  September  are 
loaded  with  red  and  white  fruit,  wdiich  has  the  pecu- 
liarity of  growing  on  the  trunk  instead  of  the  boughs, 
each  apple  attached  to  the  bark  by  a  delicate  twig. 
For  miles  along  the  sides  of  the  mountains  may  be 
seen  this  broad  forest,  the  trees  deeply  laden  with  their 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  257 

beautiful  fruit,  which  in  shape  more  resembles  the 
pear  than  the  apple.  The  skin  is  thin  and  tender,  and 
the  fruit  exceedingly  juicy  and  agreeably  cooling, 
though  its  taste  is  insipid.  Mr.  Whitney,  in  his  "  Ha- 
waiian Tourist,"  says  of  this  remarkable  fruit  forest: 

"  The  crop  of  these  apple-orchards,  which  nature 
has  planted  so  gorgeously  in  this  wild  and  solitary 
waste,  would  fill  a  fleet  of  a  hundred  steamers,  for  the 
orchards  stretch  over  a  country  from  five  to  ten 
miles  wide  by  twenty  long,  and  many  of  the  largest 
trees  bear  at  least  fifty  barrels  each.  The  fruit  fur- 
nishes the  traveller  an  excellent  repast,  appeasing  both 
hunger  and  thirst.  So  far  as  now  known,  no  com- 
mercial use  can  be  made  of  the  ohia,  as  when  ripe  it 
cannot  be  kept  more  than  four  days." 

In  addition  to  this  native  apple  is  a  native  peach, 
which  grows  well  and  bears  fruit  in  two  years  from  the 
seed.  It  is  much  smaller  than  the  American  peach, 
but  is  very  sweet  and  juicy,  and  is  excellent  for  pies 
and  preserves.  It  might,  perhaps,  in  a  few  years'  cul- 
ture be  greatly  improved.  The  American  peach  can 
be  grown  at  elevations  of  4000  feet.  The  Avocado 
pear,  usually  called  Alligator  pear,  grows  well,  and 
bears  fruit  of  splendid  quality  in  from  three  to  five 
years  from  seed.  The  fruit  is  much  esteemed,  and  a 
small  quantity  has  been  shipped  to  California.  This 
is  expensive,  as  it  needs  to  be  carried  in  cold  storage; 
yet  what  reaches  there  in  good  condition  sells  readily 
at  high  prices. 

Another  marvel  of  the  islands  is  the  semi-wild 
cofTee,  a  plant  which  we  are  accustomed  to  think  of  as 
solely  a  subject  of  culture,  but  which  has  spread  until 
it  forms  great  forests  in  Kona,  on  the  western  side  of 

17 


258  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  island  of  Hawaii.  Here  the  berry-bearing  plant 
extends  for  miles  over  the  rough  mountain-sides,  the 
berries,  when  ripe,  being  diligently  picked  by  the 
Japanese,  and  piled  in  bags  on  the  road-side,  to  be 
conveyed  by  pack-donkeys  to  the  coffee-mills.  Sterile 
and  barren  of  aspect,  Kona  seems  naturally  adapted 
to  the  coffee-plant,  which  roots  readily  in  holes  broken 
through  the  lava  to  the  soil  below,  where  it  grows 
freely  and  yields  fruit  in  abundance. 

The  wasteful  cutting  of  sandal-wood  and  the  injury 
done  by  wild  cattle  to  the  young  plants  have  proved 
serious  to  the  forest  growth  in  some  localities  of  the 
islands,  Maui  having  been  denuded  of  its  forests 
through  these  destructive  processes.  As  a  result,  the 
lava  dust  rises  in  such  clouds  from  its  barren  slopes 
before  the  winds  as  to  interfere  with  navigation,  hover- 
ing, during  a  brisk  gale,  like  a  dense  fog  miles  distant 
from  the  shores  of  the  island. 


USEFUL   PLANTS. 

The  Hawaiian  Islands  possess  three  indigenous 
plants  of  such  great  utility  to  the  inhabitants  that  some 
special  mention  of  them  is  demanded.  These  are,  to 
give  them  their  native  titles,  the  kalo  or  faro,  the  zvaiiti, 
and  the  ti.  The  first  of  these,  known  usually  as  the 
tare  (Colocasia  esculenta),  is  the  invaluable  native  food 
staple,  and  is  so  exceedingly  productive,  if  carefully 
cultivated,  that  it  is  said  a  taro-pit  a  few  yards  long  will 
supply  food  for  one  man  throughout  the  year.  It  is 
eaten  in  its  simple  cooked  state,  but  the  Hawaiians 
prefer  it  in  the  peculiar  form  known  as  poi,  of  which 
they  are  so  fond  that  some  of  them  have  objected  to 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  259 

leaving  their  native  land  on  the  plea  that  poi  could  not 
be  had  abroad. 

The  plant  is  grown  in  pits  or  beds,  kept  very  wet; 
the  edible  portion  being  its  large  beet-shaped  root, 
one  of  good  average  size  being  a  foot  long  by  six 
inches  in  thickness.  There  are  said  to  be  twenty-eight 
varieties  grown  on  the  islands,  their  color  varying  from 
white  to  pink.  The  growing  plants,  each  rising  fr'^^m 
its  own  little  hillock  of  clay  above  the  mud  and  wai  - 
of  the  pit,  are  as  unpleasant  as  rice  to  cultivate,  thougl, 
a  field  in  full  leaf  presents  a  pretty  effect. 

To  prepare  the  taro-root  for  food,  it  is  baked  in 
underground  ovens.  It  may  be  eaten  in  this  form  or 
the  cooked  root  prepared  for  poi,  which  is  done  by 
pounding  it  with  a  stone  pestle,  in  a  wooden  bowl  or 
on  a  scooped-out  board.  The  work  is  exhausting, 
the  root  being  waxy  and  close-grained,  and  is  per- 
formed by  men. 

The  substance  thus  prepared  is  known  as  pai-ai, 
and  may  be  kept  for  months  in  its  dry  state,  being 
packed  in  dracaena  leaves.  It  is  converted  into  poi  by 
adding  water  and  kneading  it  into  a  smooth  paste, 
which  is  then  left  for  several  days  to  ferment.  This 
gives  it  a  slightly  sour  but  rather  agreeable  flavor. 
The  eating  of  poi  is  an  art  difficult  to  acquire,  and 
only  to  be  performed  gracefully  by  one  "to  the  man- 
ner born."  A  finger  is  dipped  into  the  bowl  and  is 
drawn  out  thickly  coated  with  the  highly  adhesive 
paste,  which  is  given  a  peculiar  twirl  and  then  sucked 
from  the  finger.  This  is  one-fingered  poi.  Another 
method,  known  as  two-fingered  poi,  is  more  difficult 
to  acquire.  A  fastidious  eater  need  not  object  to 
sharing  the  bowl  of  poi  with  others,  as  no  particle  that 


k 


26o  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

lias  once  touched  the  finger  can  escape  to  mingle  again 
in  the  general  mass. 

Wauti,  the  second  of  the  useful  plants  named,  is  the 
paper  mulberry  {Moms  papyrifera),  which  furnishes 
the  natives  with  clothing  as  the  taro  does  with  food. 
The  fine  and  beautiful  cloths  for  which  the  islands 
were  formerly  famous  were  made  from  the  inner  bark 
of  the  young  shoots.  The  osier-like  plants  were  cut 
when  ten  or  twelve  feet  high,  and  the  inner  bark  sepa- 
rated by  careful  and  delicate  processes  and  made  into 
tapa,  or  native  cloth,  by  beating  with  a  mallet.  The 
mallet  had  different  patterns  carved  on  its  four  faces, 
so  that  by  its  use  several  varieties  of  cloth  could  be 
produced.  It  was  also  printed  in  beautiful  colors,  de- 
rived from  earths  and  plants.  This  cloth  was  fash- 
ioned into  the  pau,  or  woman's  garment,  which 
reached  from  the  waist  to  or  below  the  knees;  the 
maro,  the  narrow  cloth  worn  by  the  men  round  their 
loins;  the  sleeping-cloths  of  the  chiefs,  etc. 

The  third  plant  mentioned,  the  ti  (Dracmia),  serves 
various  useful  purposes.  Its  leaves  are  used  in  thatch- 
ing houses,  and,  woven  by  their  stalks,  were  for- 
merly used  by  the  islanders  to  form  a  short  cloak 
for  mountain  journeys,  ^ood  is  wrapped  in  its  leaves 
for  cooking  in  the  underground  Hawaiian  oven,  and 
these  tough  leaves  are  used  variously  for  wrapping 
purposes.  The  tree  is  planted  as  a  hedge,  and  its 
porous,  starchy  root  is  baked  and  eaten.  From  the 
sap  an  intoxicating  drink  is  made,  a  fiery  and  un- 
wholesome beverage. 

A  more  potent  drink  in  its  peculiar  way  is  that  made 
from  the  Awa  (Piper  mythisticum) ,  whose  preparation 
by  chewing  the  root  and  steeping  the  masticated  pulp 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  261 

in  water  is  not  very  enticing  to  European  tastes.  The 
effect  of  drinking  it  is  rather  stupefying  than  inebri- 
ating; and  the  government  has  sought,  though  not 
very  successfully,  to  suppress  the  use  of  this  disgusting 
and  injurious  drink.  The  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors 
is  forbidden  by  law,  except  in  Honolulu;  but,  as  may 
be  seen,  the  natives  contrive  to  evade  this  restriction. 

NATIVE  ANIMALS. 

The  indigenous  fauna  of  Hawaii  is  a  small  one.  The 
mammals  include  a  small  rat,  a  lean,  long-headed  pig, 
and  a  small  dog  with  erect  ears.  There  are  also  mice, 
and  a  bat  which  has  the  unusual  habit  of  flying  by  day. 
These  were  the  forms  found  there  by  Captain  Cook, 
though  some  of  them  may  have  been  introduced  by 
earlier  visitors.  There  are  two  native  reptiles,  small 
lizards,  which  are  abundant.  The  native  insects  are 
not  numerous  in  species,  though  they  include  some 
which  are  very  injurious  to  vegetation,  particularly 
the  pclau,  a  caterpillar. 

The  island  had  of  old  the  fortune  of  being  free  from 
poisonous  or  noxious  animals,  with  the  exception  of 
centipedes,  and  these  were  small  in  size  and  not  numer- 
ous. But  civilization  has  brought  its  nuisances  in  the 
form  of  vermin  of  various  kinds,  as  fleas,  mosquitoes, 
roaches,  etc.,  and  the  Hawaiians  can  no  longer  boast 
of  freedom  from  annoyances  of  this  character. 

There  is  a  considerable  variety  of  birds,  including 
the  domestic  fowl,  which  is  apparently  indigenous, 
wild  ducks,  snipes,  and  plovers.  Wild  geese  are 
abundant  in  the  mountain  regions,  but  do  not  come 
down  to  the  coasts.  The  singing-birds  are  few  in 
species,  one  of  them  with  a  very  sweet  note,  resem- 


262  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

bling  that  of  the  EngUsh  thrush.  Other  species  are 
notable  for  the  great  beauty  of  their  plumage.  Among 
these  are  a  small  paroquet  of  glossy  purple  color;  the 
tropic  bird,  from  whose  beautiful  feathers  was  formed 
a  fan  carried  as  one  of  the  insignia  of  the  king  and 
chiefs;  and  a  woodpecker,  bright  with  its  plumage  of 
yellow,  red.  and  green,  and  from  whose  feathers  were 
made  the  brilliant  cloaks  and  helmets  of  the  chiefs. 

Still  other  birds  yielded  their  bright  plumes  for 
these  purposes,  there  being  one  sacred  to  royalty,  the 
Oo,  a  species  of  honeysucker  peculiar  to  certain  moun- 
tain districts,  glossy  black  in  color,  but  remarkable  for 
possessing  a  pair  of  tiny  golden  feathers,  one  under 
each  wing.  These  birds  are  now  very  rare,  though 
they  were  not  injured  in  obtaining  their  much-prized 
feathers,  being  caught  by  an  adhesive  bird-lime,  and 
set  free  after  being  robbed  of  their  yellow  gems. 

The  feathers  are  only  an  inch  long,  sharp-pointed, 
and  very  delicate.  Of  these  the  great  war-cloak  of 
Kamehameha  I.  was  composed.  This  superb  mantle 
is  four  feet  long  and  eleven  and  a  half  feet  in  width  at 
the  bottom,  and  contains  all  the  feathers  gathered  by 
eight  or  ten  preceding  chiefs.  It  is  still  preserved  as 
a  precious  relic  of  old  Hawaiian  days. 

The  seas  around  the  islands  contain  many  edible 
fish,  in  the  taking  of  which  the  Hawaiians  are  very 
expert.  It  is  one  of  their  customs  to  take  the  fish  alive 
and  preserve  and  fatten  them  in  tanks  or  ponds.  So 
daring  are  they  in  the  water  that  they  do  not  hesitate 
to  attack  the  shark;  making,  indeed,  an  amusement  of 
this  dangerous  exercise,  evading  and  taunting  the 
man-eating  fish,  and  finally  killing  it  with  a  dagger- 
thrust. 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  263 

In  former  times  the  dog  and  pig  of  the  islands  were 
not  only  used  for  food,  but  were  esteemed  especial 
delicacies,  and  were  the  greatest  dainties  that  could 
be  served  at  the  royal  tables.  The  dog  in  particular 
was  the  favorite  of  the  epicure, — nice,  little  dogs  these, 
carefully  fed  on  poi,  and  of  the  size  of  a  terrier.  Their 
flesh  was  deemed  superior  to  pork  or  kid,  and  a  cer- 
tain number  of  dogs  were  exacted  by  land  owners  as 
part  of  the  rent  of  their  lands.  Mr.  Ellis  speaks  of 
having  seen  nearly  200  dogs  cooked  in  one  day;  and 
mentions  a  royal  banquet  in  which  400  baked  dogs 
were  served  up,  with  hogs,  fish,  and  vegetables  in 
abundance. 

INTRODUCED  ANIMALS. 

During  the  past  century  various  foreign  animals 
have  been  introduced,  some  of  which  have  greatly 
flourished.  Vancouver  introduced  cattle  in  1792,  and 
these  in  time  became  so  numerous  that  thousands  of 
wild  cattle  roam  at  large  through  the  forest  belt  on  the 
lower  mountain  slopes.  These,  increasing  at  first 
under  state  protection,  have  grown  so  fierce  that  the 
natives  hold  them  in  wholesome  dread,  and  avoid  their 
haunts  in  the  forests,  where  they  are  said  to  do  much 
damage  to  the  timber.  They  had  no  sooner  become 
numerous  than  shooting-parties  were  organized  by 
white  men  and  brown  alike,  and  since  then  beef  has 
become  a  common  article  of  diet. 

In  addition  to  the  wild  cattle,  great  numbers  are 
kept  on  ranches,  some  of  which  are  more  than  twenty 
miles  long;  the  owners  possessing  nominally  from 
10,000  to  15,000  head  of  half-wild  animals,  which  at 
some   period    of   their   existence    are    corralled    and 


264  OVR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

branded  with  the  owners'  marks.  In  this  work  many 
of  the  Hawaiians  are  engaged,  they  being  daring 
horsemen  and  as  expert  as  cowboys  with  the  lasso. 
The  cattle  are  a  degenerate  breed,  and  crossing  with 
finer  stock  is  highly  desirable. 

The  horse  is  another  introduced  animal  which  has 
increased  with  great  rapidity,  and  numbers  of  which 
have  returned  to  the  semi-savage  state.  They  are  so 
numerous  in  some  of  the  islands  as  to  be  a  plague, 
breaking  fences  and  treading  down  crops,  and  other- 
wise rendering  themselves  objectionable.  Yet  their 
abundance  has  given  rise  to  a  passion  for  riding 
among  the  Hawaiians,  men  and  women  alike,  though 
the  wuld  and  furious  barebacked  horsemanship  of  the 
past  has  been  somewhat  toned  down  under  more  civil- 
ized conditions.  A  people  whose  former  delight  was 
in  war,  who  love  to  plunge  down  water-falls  and  swim 
through  the  fiercest  surf,  and  who  attack  the  shark  as 
an  amusement,  is  one  likely  to  yield  bold  riders,  w^ho 
would  seize  on  such  a  new  muscular  exercise  with 
avidity.  The  horses  themselves  are  small,  lean,  sorry- 
looking  creatures,  which  sadly  need  replacing  with 
better  breeds. 

In  addition  to  their  cattle  ranches,  the  islands  have 
their  sheep-runs;  and  deer  have  been  brought  thither 
and  set  free  in  the  forests  of  the  island  of  Hawaii,  with 
a  hope  that  they  will  increase  as  cattle  have  done.  To 
hunt  the  deer  in  the  forests  of  lava-covered  Mauna 
Loa  will  be  a  new  and  exciting  form  of  sport  for  whites 
and  Hawaiians  alike.  Wild  pigs  are  numerous,  and 
boar-hunting  has  become  one  of  the  sports  of  the 
islands,  often  a  dangerous  one.  The  dog  has  also 
resumed  its  original  wildness,  and  in  times  of  dearth 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  265 

is  dangerous  in  some  of  the  mountain  regions,  where 
it  has  become  almost  as  savage  as  the  wolf. 

Various  species  of  foreign  birds  have  been  intro- 
duced, and  these,  like  the  foreign  plants,  bid  fair  to 
replace  the  native  species.  The  house  sparrow  from 
Europe  and  the  turtle-dove  and  the  maina  from  China 
are  almost  the  only  birds  to  be  seen  in  and  about 
Honolulu,  and  the  native  species  are  growing  some- 
what difficult  to  find. 


IV.  CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS.. 

TERRITORY  OF  HAWAIL 

The  government  of  Hawaii  (or  Hawaii-Nei,  to  give 
the  group  its  native  title)  has  passed  through  the  sev- 
eral phases  of  an  absolute  monarchy,  a  limited  mon- 
archy, a  provisional  republic,  and  a  constitutional  re- 
public, and  is  now  a  possession  of  the  United  States. 
The  bill  for  its  organization  (brought  before  but  not 
passed  by  the  Fifty-fifth  Congress)  proposes  to  give 
it  a  territorial  government,  under  the  title  of  the  Terri- 
tory of  Hawaii,  with  a  governor  appointed  by  the 
President  and  the  requisite  heads  of  the  several  de- 
partments of  public  works,  public  instruction,  finance, 
etc. 

This  bill  provides  for  a  legislature  of  two  houses, 
consisting  of  a  Senate  of  fifteen  members  and  a  House 
of  Representatives  of  thirty  members ;  voters  for  repre- 
sentatives being  required  to  be  "  able  to  speak,  read, 
and  write  the  English  or  Hawaiian  language;"  and 
voters  for  senators,  in  addition,  to  possess  a  specified 
amount  of  property.  All  persons  who  were  citizens 
of  the  Republic  of  Hawaii  on  August  12,  1898,  are  to 
become  citizens  of  the  United  States,  with  the  privi- 
lege of  suffrage  under  the  qualifications  above  named. 
Senators  and  representatives  must  have  resided  for 
three  years  in  the  Hawaiian  Islands. 

The  provisions  regarding  citizenship  exclude  Chi- 
nese and  Japanese  laborers,  who  constitute  a  large 
part  of  the  population  of  the  islands,  from  that  right, 
266 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     267 

these  not  having  been  "  citizens  of  the  Republic  of 
Hawaii,"  The  laws  of  the  United  States  concerning 
immigration  extend  to  the  islands,  Chinese  being  ex- 
cluded, and  also  Japanese  brought  in  under  contract 
by  the  sugar  planters.  These  regulations  will  render 
necessary  some  new  method  of  procuring  the  requisite 

labor. 

POPULATION. 

Captain  Cook,  on  his  visit  to  the  islands  in  1778,  es- 
timated the  population  at  400,000.  This,  while  largely 
a  guess,  was  perhaps  not  greatly  in  excess  of  the  actual 
fact;  for  there  was  undoubtedly  a  rapid  decrease  in 
population  previous  to  the  arrival  of  the  missionaries 
in  1820,  when  but  about  140,000  people  were  found 
on  the  islands. 

Three  causes  of  this  depopulation  are  assigned. 
One  was  the  sanguinary  wars  of  conquest  of  Kame- 
hameha  I.  A  second  was  the  practice  of  infanticide. 
The  third  was  the  effect  of  diseases  brought  by  the 
whites  and  acting  with  terrible  effect  upon  a  people 
to  whom  they  were  new.  As  the  years  went  on  the 
depopulation  continued.  In  1832  the  natives  were 
estimated  at  130,000;  in  1836  at  108,000;  and  in  1850 
at  84,000.  In  1872  the  census  gave  a  total  native 
population  of  49,044;  in  1878,  of  44,088;  in  1884,  of 
40,014;  in  1890,  of  34,436;  and  in  1896,  of  31,019. 
There  have  been  for  many  years  several  thousand  in- 
habitants of  part  Hawaiian  blood;  but  the  full-blooded 
natives  threaten  to  become  extinct  before  many  more 
years  have  elapsed.  Of  the  three  causes  assigned  for 
this  decrease  two  no  longer  exist,  infanticide  and  war 
being  at  an  end,  while  the  introduced  diseases  are 
less  fatal  than  of  old.     The  chief  cause  of  decrease 


268  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

at  present  seems  to  be  the  small  birth-rate;  the  ma- 
jority of  families  having  no  children,  and  few  more 
than  two  or  three.  And  children  are  greatly  neglected 
by  their  mothers,  who  seem  more  tender  of  dogs  and 
other  pets  than  of  their  offspring.  Thus,  though  open 
infanticide  is  at  an  end,  practical  infanticide  seems  to 
exist,  and  unless  a  stronger  maternal  instinct  can  be 
awakened  in  the  Hawaiian  women  the  race  seems 
doomed. 

As  the  Hawaiians  have  vanished,  whites  and 
Asiatics  have  gradually  taken  their  place.  In  1878  the 
islands  contained  5916  Chinese,  1276  Americans,  and 
2338  foreigners  of  other  origin.  The  development  of 
the  sugar-cane  culture  in  the  succeeding  period  gave 
rise  to  a  rapid  increase  in  the  foreign  population,  the 
census  of  1890  giving  the  following  statistics: 

Hawaiians 34,436 

Half-castes 6,186 

Whites 21,119 

Chinese iS>30i 

Japanese 12,360 

South  Sea  Islanders 588 

Total 89,990 

Of  these  the  whites  are  credited  with  the  following 
origins: 

Born  in  the  islands 7)495 

Portuguese  from  Fayal 8,602 

Americans 1,928 

British 1.344 

Germans I>034 

Norwegians 227 

French 70 

Other  nationalities 410 

Total 21,119 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     269 

The  latest  census,  that  of  September  27,  1896, 
yielded  the  following  results; 

Hawaiians 31,019 

Half-castes 8,485 

Japanese 24,407 

Chinese 21,616 

Portuguese 15,191 

Americans 3,086    ^ 

British 2,^50 

Germans 1,432 

French loi 

Norwegians 378 

South  Sea  Islanders 455 

Other  nationalities 600 

Total 109,020  t> 

Of  the  total  here  given,  72,517  were  males  and 
36,507  females;  the  latter  being  in  great  measure  re- 
stricted to  native  and  half-caste  women  and  whites  of 
island  birth.  The  occupations  of  the  population,  per 
the  census  returns,  were  as  follows: 

Laborers 34,438 

Agriculturists 7,57° 

Fishing  and  navigation 2,100 

General  industries 2,265 

Commerce  and  transportation 2,031 

Liberal  professions 2,580 

Miscellaneous 4,3io 

Without  profession S3>726 

The  inhabitants  were  distributed  over  the  several 
islands  in  the  following  proportions:  Oahu,  40,205; 
Hawaii,  33,285;  Maui,  17,726;  Kauai,  15,228;  Mo- 
lokai,  2307;  Niihau,  164;  Lanai,  105.  The  last  two 
contain  only  herdsmen,  and  Kahulaui  is  uninhabited. 


270  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

EDUCATION. 

It  is  to  the  earnest  labors  of  the  missionaries  that 
Hawaii  owes  its  excellent  system  of  public  elementary 
education,  one  of  the  most  complete  anywhere  to  be 
found.  As  long  as  forty  years  ago  there  was  scarcely 
a  child  on  the  islands  who  could  not  read  and  write; 
and  a  stringent  system  of  compulsory  education  now 
exists  which  reaches  all  the  children  of  the  islands, 
those  of  the  towns  and  of  the  rural  districts  alike. 
There  are  schools  all  over  the  islands,  and  no  child 
of  school  age  is  permitted  to  be  absent  from  school 
except  under  some  satisfactory  excuse. 

The  government  schools  are  numerous  and  are  very 
good,  all  Hawaiian  chifdren  being  educated  at  public 
expense,  unless  they  are  in  some  endowed  or  other 
private  institution.  The  native  is  imitative  and  quick 
to  assimilate,  and  makes  satisfactory  progress  until  a 
certain  point  is  reached,  when  the  limit  of  his  intellec- 
tual powers  seems  to  be  attained.  Only  exceptionally 
can  he  be  carried  beyond  this  limit.  The  English 
language  is  everywhere  taught,  there  being  very  few 
schools  in  which  the  Hawaiian  dialect  is  retained.  In 
consequence,  it  is  rapidly  dying  out  and  threatens 
soon  to  vanish. 

There  are  many  endowed  institutions  for  the  educa- 
tion of  boys  and  girls,  chief  among  them  being  the 
Kamehameha  schools,  founded  by  a  descendant  of  the 
royal  family.  In  these  a  nominal  fee  is  charged,  and 
industrial  training  is  added  to  the  school  education, 
the  boys  being  taught  various  trades  and  the  girls  the 
arts  of  house-keeping. 

The  truant-ofificers  do  not  find  their  duties  arduous, 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     271 

as  the  Hawaiian  children  are  ready  and  wilHng  to  at- 
tend school.  The  government  schools  were  made  free 
in  1888,  with  the  exception  of  two  in  Honolulu  and 
one  in  Hilo;  and  since  then  there  has  been  marked 
progress  in  education,  the  number  of  school-houses 
having  increased,  and  a  uniform  course  of  study, 
American  in  origin,  being  adopted.  The  number  of 
pupils  in  1887  was  5679.  In  1894  they  had  increased 
to  8050,  and  in  1896  to  12,612.  Of  these,  7405  were 
Hawaiians  and  half-castes,  4177  whites  (largely  Port- 
uguese), 740  Chinese,  261  Japanese,  and  29  South 
Sea  Islanders.  The  teachers  are  well  paid,  the  salaries 
ranging  from  $600  to  $1000,  or  more,  per  annum. 

RELIGION. 

Religion  has  the  same  freedom  in  Hawaii  as  in  the 
United  States,  and  had  so  previous  to  the  overthrow 
of  the  monarchy.  Nowhere  else  have  the  labors  of 
the  missionaries  been  so  completely  successful;  this 
being  in  great  part  due  to  the  remarkable  abandon- 
ment of  their  system  of  idol-worship  by  the  natives 
themselves,  leaving  the  missionaries  a  v\rgin  field  in 
which  to  work.  Among  the  natives  the  Protestant 
doctrines  most  widely  prevail,  the  Congregationalists 
being  the  principal  sect.  There  are  hundreds  of 
churches  with  native  Hawaiian  pastors,  while  the 
Roman  Catholic  congregations  are  under  French  and 
German  priests. 

At  the  last  census  the  religious  status  of  the  popula- 
tion was  as  follows:  Roman  Catholics,  26,363;  Prot- 
estants, 23,373;  Mormons,  4886;  Buddhists  and  other 
Asiatic  faiths,  44,306;   doubtful,  10,192. 

Of   the   ancient   Hawaiian   deities,   there  was   one 


272  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

whose  worship  in  a  measure  survived  the  overthrow 
of  idolatry,  and  superstitious  fear  of  whom  is  not  yet 
quite  extinct.  This  was  the  famous  Pele,  the  dreaded 
goddess  of  the  volcano,  to  whose  wrath  the  terrible 
outbursts  of  lava  were  believed  to  be  due.  The  great 
crater  of  Kilauea  was  the  dwelling-place  of  this  wrath- 
ful divinity,  who,  with  her  attendant  demons,  bathed 
and  sported  in  its  fiery  waves;  while  the  thread-like, 
silky  filaments  blown  by  the  wind  from  the  tossing 
lava  are  still  known  as  Pele's  hair. 

When  Mr.  Ellis  visited  the  volcano  in  1822,  he  found 
that  the  people  who  had  forsaken  the  gods  of  the  low 
country  still  held  the  deity  of  the  crater  in  awe,  and 
none  dared  taste  of  the  sacred  berries,  which  grew 
abundantly  from  the  decomposed  lava,  without  first 
throwing  a  branch  loaded  with  the  juicy  fruit  into  the 
crater  as  an  offering  to  the  goddess.  The  worship  of 
this  deity  received  a  fatal  blow  in  1824,  when  Kapio- 
laui,  a  princess  converted  to  Christianity,  visited  the 
crater,  ate  the  sacred  berries  without  the  customary 
offering  to  Pele,  and  defied  her  wrath  by  hurling  stones 
into  the  burning  lake.  Nothing  happened  to  her,  and 
the  spell  of  superstition  was  broken,  though  a  shadow 
of  the  old  fear  still  exists.  The  favorite  votive  offer- 
ings to  Pele  were  white  chickens,  and  these  are  said  to 
be  still  occasionally  offered  in  secret  to  the  dread  deity. 
Other  offerings  are  also  at  times  made  by  supersti- 
tious travellers;  the  worship  of  this  one  relic  of  the 
ancient  Hawaiian  pantheon  being  thus  in  a  half- 
hearted fashion  kept  up,  even  by  those  who  deem 
themselves  good  Christians. 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     273 

PUBLIC  WORKS. 

The  character  of  the  Hawaiian  soil  and  surface  lends 
itself  well  to  the  art  of  road-making,  and  a  number  of 
very  good  roads  exist  in  the  islands  and  are  kept  in 
excellent  condition.  This  is  rendered  necessary  by 
the  heavy  loads  which  are  drawn  over  them.  There 
may  be  seen  great  wagons  loaded  with  wood  or  cane, 
or  huge  logs  drawn  by  from  six  to  twelve  or  more 
yoke  of  oxen,  ponderous  weights  for  which  only  a 
solid  road-bed  would  sufifice. 

The  mountainous  character  of  the  interior  of  the 
islands  and  their  small  dimensions  render  any  con- 
siderable extension  of  railroad  building  impracticable; 
yet  some  good  progress  has  been  made  in  this  direc- 
tion. The  Oahu  Railway  and  Land  Company  ran  its 
pioneer  passenger  train  on  September  4,  1889,  and 
the  road  was  formally  opened  for  business  on  Novem- 
ber 16,  carrying  hundreds  of  people  free  from  Hono- 
lulu to  Halawa.  It  has  since  been  extended  to  Wai- 
annae,  a  length  of  line,  including  sidings,  of  38.5  miles. 
This  is  a  well-built,  single-track  road,  supplied  with 
rolling  stock  of  American  manufacture,  and  kept  in 
good  running  order.  The  equipment  consists  of  five 
locomotives,  fourteen  passenger  and  one  hundred  and 
thirty-two  freight  cars,  and  its  business  has  steadily 
grown.  In  1897  it  carried  85,596  passengers  and 
66,430  tons  of  freight.  Mr.  B.  F.  Dillingham,  the  pro- 
jector of  the  road,  expects  eventually  to  carry  it 
around  the  entire  island  of  Oahu. 

There  are  two  other  railroads  on  the  islands,  one 
on  Maui  and  the  other  on  Hawaii.  That  on  Maui  is 
thirteen  miles  long;    its  trains  making  regular  trips 

18 


274  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

from  Wailuka  to  Paia,  but  with  poor  accommodations 
for  passengers,  as  there  is  but  httle  passenger  travel 
on  this  island.  The  sugar  from  a  number  of  large 
plantations  is  conveyed  by  this  road  to  Kahului  Bay, 
three  miles  from  Wailuka,  and  goods  in  return  are 
carried  inland. 

The  island  of  Hawaii  has  about  twenty  miles  of  rail- 
road. A  line  extends  from  the  steamboat  landing  at 
Punaluu  to  Pahala,  the  starting-point  of  the  stage- 
line  to  the  volcano  of  Kilauea.  This  road  ascends 
through  a  diflficult  country,  and  winds  back  and  for- 
ward, passing  over  deep  ravines  by  tall  trestle-work 
bridges.  It  is  crooked  but  picturesque,  and  is  provided 
with  good  accommodation  for  passengers;  its  prin- 
cipal business  being  to  carry  tourists  to  the  volcano, 
which  is  by  its  aid  rendered  much  more  accessible. 

These  public  railroads  are  supplemented  by  planta- 
tion roads,  with  which  nearly  every  large  sugar  estate 
is  provided.  They  extend  from  all  parts  of  the  plan- 
tation to  its  central  point,  the  mill ;  and  in  some  cases 
a  single  road  connects  several  plantations.  These 
roads  are  supplied  with  small,  light  rails,  connected 
often  by  cross-ties  of  iron,  so  that  they  can  be  taken 
up  and  moved  with  little  expense,  the  track  being 
shifted  as  desired  and  cane  planted  where  the  cars  had 
run.  Their  cars  carry  the  hands  to  the  fields  and 
home  again,  bring  cane  to  the  mills,  and  are  used  in  a 
dozen  ways  to  lessen  labor  and  expense.  The  engines 
are  small  but  of  good  pulling  power,  and  are  kept  busy 
during  the  grinding  season  in  drawing  great  loads  of 
cane  to  the  mill. 

American  enterprise,  to  which  these  roads  are  due, 
is  also  displayed  in  the  street  railways,  of  which  there 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     275 

are  a  number  of  miles  in  Honolulu.  Horses  and  mules 
furnish  the  motive-power  for  the  street-cars,  and  are 
likely  to  do  so  for  several  years  yet,  since  the  com- 
pany controlling  the  roads  refuses  to  put  in  an  electric 
system  in  response  to  the  public  demand.  In  this  con- 
nection reference  may  also  be  made  to  the  electric 
light,  which  was  introduced  into  the  capital  by  the 
recent  government,  and  is  in  use  on  some  of  the  large 
plantations. 

Travel  in  Hawaii  demands  steamship  rather  than 
railroad  lines,  inter-island  commerce  being  a  necessity 
of  the  situation.  In  the  days  of  native  supremacy,  the 
double  canoe  served  the  purposes  of  travellers.  It 
was  succeeded  in  later  years  by  sailing-craft,  and  the 
steamer  followed  in  due  time,  the  Kilauea,  the  pio- 
neer boat,  being  run  at  a  loss  by  the  government. 
But  the  traffic  demands  grew  rapidly,  and  a  trans- 
portation company  was  formed,  which  bought  the 
Kilauea,  and  between  1877  and  1884  added  the  Like- 
like,  the  Mokolii,  the  Lehau,  the  Kinau,  and  the 
Kilauea  Hou  (New  Kilauea).  In  1890,  the  Hawaii, 
built  for  the  sugar-carrying  trade,  and  the  Claudine,  a 
large  and  handsomely  appointed  passenger-boat,  were 
added. 

The  Wilder  Steamship  Company,  which  runs  these 
boats,  now  devotes  the  large  steamers  Kinau  and  Clau- 
dine to  regular  passenger  traffic,  the  others  being  used 
as  freight  boats,  but  occasionally  carrying  passengers. 
The  Kinau  makes  regular  trips  between  Honolulu 
and  Hilo,  stopping  at  intermediate  ports.  The  Clau- 
dine runs  from  Honolulu  to  the  ports  of  Maui. 

The  inter-island  traffic  has  increased  so  greatly  that 
still    another    company,    the    Inter-island    Steamship 


276  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

Navigation  Company,  has  successfully  engaged  in  it; 
the  boats  of  this  company  making  their  trips  on  the 
opposite  side  of  the  islands  to  that  pursued  by  the 
Wilder  Company  boats.  This  company  put  on  its 
first  steamer,  the  James  Makee,  in  1879.  It  has  since 
added  the  W.  G.  Hall,  Mikahala,  Iwalani,  Kauai,  Ke 
Au  Hou,  Waialeale,  and  Kaala.  The  business  of  these 
two  companies  may  be  estimated  at  $1,000,000  per 
annum,  and  is  constantly  increasing. 

Hawaii  possesses  a  well-developed  system  of  irrigar 
tion,  which  the  necessities  of  sugar  culture  have  ren- 
dered indispensable  on  the  leeward  sides  of  the  islands, 
with  their  paucity  of  rainfall.  The  numerous  moun- 
tain streams  furnish  a  good  supply  of  water  for  this 
purpose;  the  application  of  which  has  had  a  striking 
effect  upon  the  aspect  of  the  islands,  changing  the 
barren,  lava-strewn  wilderness  in  many  places  into  a 
paradise  of  luxuriant  foliage.  Honolulu  is  abundantly 
supplied  with  water  from  large  reservoirs  constructed 
in  the  mountain  valleys,  whence  pipes  convey  the 
water  to  all  parts  of  the  town.  To  provide  an  addi- 
tional supply,  many  artesian  wells  have  been  sunk. 

There  has  been  a  considerable  development  of  the 
telegraph,  which  is  extended  widely  over  Maui  and 
Hawaii,  and  runs  all  round  Oahu.  The  total  length  of 
line  is  about  250  miles.  Hawaii  and  Oahu  have  sub- 
marine connection,  and  all  the  islands  are  soon  to  be 
connected  by  wire.  The  telephone  has  been  intro- 
duced into  Honolulu  and  come  into  very  general  use 
there,  nearly  every  family  having  a  telephone  connec- 
tion. It  is  also  wide-spread  over  the  islands,  the  sugar 
estates  usually  having  telephone  connection  with  the 
towns.    Even  on  the  lip  of  the  lava  pit  of  Kilauea  is  a 


CIVIL   AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     277 

telephone  station,  from  which  visitors  to  the  crater 
may  notify  the  people  at  the  volcano  house  above  at 
what  hour  they  wish  dinner  to  be  ready.  The  Ha- 
waiian postal  system  is  active  and  increasing.  In  1895, 
the  letters  sent  and  received  amounted  to  3,978,880. 


V.  CENTRES  OF  POPULATION. 

HONOLULU. 

Honolulu,  the  capital  of  the  Hawaiian  Islands, 
presents  a  very  attractive  appearance  to  the  traveller 
approaching  from  the  sea.  Diamond  Head,  an  extinct 
volcano,  lies  like  a  crouching  lion  in  the  path,  passing 
which  the  island  city  breaks  into  view,  beautiful  in  its 
background  of  picturesque  hills,  its  abundant  vegeta- 
tion, deep  blue  skies,  and  warm  tropical  sunshine.  On 
entering  the  harbor  a  scene  of  activity  appears,  num- 
bers of  vessels  lying  at  anchor,  while  the  canoes  of  the 
natives — each  a  hollowed-out  tree  kept  from  upsetting 
by  an  outrigger — dart  in  a  lively  fashion  from  point  to 
point. 

Honolulu  is  a  creation  of  the  foreigner,  and  contains 
representatives  of  every  travelling  nation,  the  Ameri- 
can everywhere  in  the  lead.  In  1815  it  was  a  mere 
fishing  village  on  a  sandy  plain,  whose  only  vegetation 
was  a  fringe  of  cocoa-nut  trees  along  the  shore.  In 
that  year,  John  Young,  an  American  sailor  who  had 
been  taken  prisoner  by  the  Hawaiians,  and  whose 
ability  had  raised  him  to  the  position  of  governor  of 
the  island  of  Hawaii,  advised  the  construction  of  a  fort 
at  this  point  to  command  what  was  apparently  the  best 
harbor  on  the  islands.  The  fort  was  built  under  his 
directions  in  1816,  and  made  a  work  of  considerable 
size  and  strength.  In  1820  Kamehameha  II.  moved 
his  court  from  Hawaii  to  Oahu,  and  made  Honolulu 
278 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  279 

the  capital  of  his  kingdom.  It  is  now  the  metropolis 
of  the  islands,  and  has  grown  until  in  1896  it  had  a 
population  of  29,920. 

Honolulu  presents  nothing  of  the  imposing,  though- 
it  possesses  much  of  the  attractive,  many  of  its  resi- 
dences being  converted  into  little  paradises  by  their 
wilderness  of  tropical  verdure.  The  government  build- 
ings are  handsome,  and  on  a  very  extensive  scale 
considering  the  small  size  of  the  country.  They  con- 
tain a  library  and  a  museum,  of  which  the  former  is 
well  supplied  with  books  relating  to  Hawaii,  and  the 
latter  possesses  many  interesting  relics,  including 
weapons  and  utensils  of  various  kinds.  Prominent 
among  them  are  necklaces  of  hair,  each  containing  a 
hundred  or  more  of  the  finest  braids,  reft  not  from 
the  brow  of  beauty,  but  from  the  heads  of  warriors 
slain  in  battle.  From  each  depends  a  curious  hook- 
shaped  ornament  of  polished  shell  or  sperm-whale's 
tooth,  a  sacred  emblem  peculiar  to  the  island,  its  sig- 
nificance not  clearly  known. 

The  King's  Palace,  a  handsome  edifice  built  of  vol- 
canic rock,  stands  in  the  midst  of  extensive  grounds, 
with  well-kept  lawns  and  flowering  trees  and  shrubs. 
The  Queen's  Hospital,  with  its  rare  tropical  setting, 
is  a  thing  of  beauty  of  which  the  islanders  are  proud. 
There  are  other  buildings  of  some  prominence,  in- 
cluding a  number  of  churches,  and  the  Royal  Ha- 
waiian Hotel,  the  chief  caravansary  of  the  islands. 
Honolulu  possesses  also  five  public  squares,  of  which 
the  most  important  is  the  Thomas  Square,  a  retreat 
shaded  with  tree-ferns  and  palms,  within  which  of  old 
the  royal  band  made  the  air  of  evening  musical. 

This  city  is  said  to  possess  in  all  sixty-seven  miles 


28o  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE, 

of  streets  and  drives,  many  of  them  macadamized  and 
fringed  with  trees.  The  streets  in  the  business  section 
of  the  town  are  narrow,  but  in  all  parts  they  are 
scrupulously  clean,  dust  being  kept  down  by  frequent 
and  careful  sweepings.  The  streets  are  panoramas 
of  life  and  color,  business  of  all  kinds  going  on 
actively,  while  the  stores  make  an  excellent  display  of 
desirable  wares.  In  the  Chinese  quarter  are  rows  of 
small  shops,  dealing  in  a  variety  of  goods,  among 
them  Chinese  and  Japanese  curios  and  Hawaiian  an- 
tiquities, of  which  the  latter  were  probably  made  by 
the  venders  themselves,  though  they  are  offered  as 
genuine  antiques. 

A  single  bank  serves  all  the  present  financial  needs 
of  the  city;  but  insurance  agencies  flourish,  there 
being  nearly  thirty  of  these  devoted  to  marine,  fire,  and 
life  insurance.  Freemasonry  has  long  flourished  in 
the  islands,  the  capital  containing  thirteen  lodges  of 
the  Order,  of  which  King  Kalakaua  was  a  member  of 
high  rank. 

A  few  words  in  relation  to  the  markets  of  the  city 
may  be  of  interest,  the  fish  market  being  specially 
peculiar  in  its  viands,  since  the  chief  of  these  is  the 
cuttle-fish,  or  octopus,  the  eight-armed  sea  monster 
otherwise  known  as  the  devil-fish.  This  repellent 
creature  is  a  favorite  article  of  the  Hawaiian  cuisine, 
as  it  is  of  the  Japanese,  and  is  to  be  seen  here  in  all  its 
sizes  and  varieties.  The  large  ones  are  cut  up  and 
sold  in  sections,  while  those  of  intermediate  size  are 
displayed  alive,  with  their  writhing  snake-like  arms. 
Diminutive  forms  of  the  same  tribe  may  be  bought  by 
the  dozen.  The  Hawaiian  native  does  not  hesitate  to 
eat  these  alive,  asserting  that  a  live  cuttle-fish  is  a 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  281 

greater  delicacy  than  the  best  oysters.  Fish  are  often 
eaten  raw,  and  seemingly  enjoyed. 

There  are  various  edible  fish  offered  for  sale,  to- 
gether with  spiny  sea-urchins,  oysters,  limpets,  crabs, 
cray-fish,  and  several  varieties  of  sea-weed,  eaten 
either  raw  or  cooked.  The  fruit  market  is  well  sup- 
plied with  watermelons,  large  and  juicy;  bananas, 
oranges,  cocoa-nuts,  figs.  Avocado  pears,  and  pine- 
apples of  inferior  flavor. 

Honolulu  is  a  foreign  city  in  more  respects  than 
one.  Built  and  largely  inhabited  by  foreigners,  it 
owes  its  chief  charm — the  luxuriant  foliage  which 
converts  it  into  a  paradise  of  beauty — to  foreign 
plants,  vitalized  with  the  water  brought  by  the  skill 
of  foreign  engineers  from  the  mountain  streams.  The 
deficiency  of  rain  has  been  made  good  by  irrigation, 
which  has  converted  the  site  into  a  blooming  garden, 
rich  with  the  foliage  of  imported  plants. 

In  the  words  of  C.  F.  Gordon  Gumming,  "  A  multi- 
tude of  pleasant  two-storied  bungalows  are  embowered 
in  gardens  brilliant  with  flowering  shrubs,  and  by  the 
richest  trees  of  the  tropics.  Beautiful  passion-flowers 
and  starry  clematis,  orange  venusta,  and  bougain- 
villeas,  with  their  rich  masses  of  magenta  foliage, 
climb  in  profusion  over  the  verandas  and  droop  from 
the  roofs, — which  indeed  they  almost  conceal.  Helio- 
tropes, roses,  and  geraniums  well  repay  the  care  be- 
stowed upon  them.  Golden  allamandas  and  rosy 
oleanders,  pure  white  trumpet-flowers,  scarlet  and 
yellow  hibiscus,  and  fragrant  gardenia  are  among  the 
commonest  shrubs,  while  starry  white  lilies  grow  in 
rank  profusion,  as  does  also  a  fragrant  and  beautifid 
white  cactus,  the  night-blooming  cereus,  which  creeps 


282  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

unheeded  over  rough  stone  walls  and  banks.  Over- 
head the  feathery  tamarind  trees  form  a  soft  veil  of  the 
lightest  lace-like  foliage,  or  large  glossy-leaved  india- 
rubber  trees  throw  their  cool,  dark  shadow  on  smooth 
green  lawns:  and  mango  and  bread-fruit  rank  as 
handsome  foliage  trees,  though  their  fruit  is  not  to 
compare  with  that  of  the  Southern  isles.  Norfolk 
Island  pines  and  date-palms  both  grow  luxuriantly, 
also  the  magnolia  and  eucalyptus." 

The  most  beautiful  of  these  ornamental  trees  is  the 
royal  palm,  which  reaches  perfection  in  Hawaii,  and 
adorns  nearly  every  lawn  in  the  city.  The  Hawaiian 
dwelling  is  a  one-storied  edifice,  with  verandas  front 
and  back,  and  sometimes  on  the  sides,  and  wide  doors 
opening  into  parlor,  dining-room,  and  other  apart- 
ments. The  walk  from  the  street  is  paved  with  heavy 
slabs  cut  from  the  trunks  of  the  pulu  fern  trees,  which 
form  a  soft  and  fine-wearing  pavement.  The  tree  does 
not  suffer  from  the  wound,  since  this  quickly  heals. 
On  either  side  of  this  walk  are  rows  of  bright-leaved 
plants,  beyond  which  on  each  side  extends  the  pro- 
fusion of  bloom  above  described,  while  in  the  gardens 
grow  bananas,  oranges,  dates,  figs,  and  a  dozen  other 
tropical  fruits.  Shade  is  supplied  by  the  banyan,  the 
bamboo,  the  tree  fern,  and  other  tropical  trees,  form- 
ing shady  and  invitmg  retreats  during  the  midday 
heat. 

Honolulu  has  its  striking  surroundings.  Overlook- 
ing the  town  is  a  steep  hill  of  volcanic  scoria,  reddish 
brown  in  color,  with  a  crater  at  the  top  known  as  the 
Punch-Bowl.  A  little  farther  away  is  the  Diamond 
Head  promontory,  red  and  lava  seamed.  It  is  about 
760  feet  high,  and  contains  an  extinct  crater  700  feet 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  283 

in  depth.  Its  days  of  power  are  gone,  and  it  is  now 
crumbling  away  under  the  assaults  of  wind  and  rain. 

Three  miles  from  the  city,  and  between  it  and  Dia- 
mond Head,  lies  the  pleasant  sea-side  village  of  Wai- 
kiki,  which  the  citizens  seek  in  carriages  or  street-cars 
for  the  enjoyment  of  surf-bathing.  It  presents  a  suc- 
cession of  handsome  private  villas,  surrounded  by 
gardens;  while  bathers  find  there  an  excellent  beach, 
clear  water  with  smooth  bottom,  commodious  bath- 
houses, and  good  bathing  temperature  from  January 
to  June.  The  sharks  which  haunt  most  of  the  coast 
rarely  or  never  cross  the  reef  at  this  place. 

Back  of  Honolulu,  ascending  into  the  mountains,  is 
the  beautiful  Nuuana  Valley,  which  ends  in  a  great 
cleft  in  the  mountain  ridge  known  as  the  Pali,  and 
yielding  a  magnificent  view  of  the  verdant  eastern  side 
of  the  island.  This  valley  is  luxuriantly  green  to 
within  two  or  three  miles  of  the  town,  and  is  bordered 
by  numbers  of  handsome  villas.  The  rain-clouds  pass- 
ing through  the  cleft  pour  their  refreshing  waters 
along  its  course,  shedding  their  last  drops  on  the 
streets  of  Honolulu  with  such  parsimony  that  some 
streets  are  rainier  than  others,  and  irrigation  from  the 
water-pipe  and  artesian  well  is  necessary  for  the  gar- 
den vegetation  of  the  town. 

HILO. 

Hawaii  possesses  few  towns  besides  the  capital,  the 
only  one  of  importance  being  Hilo,  the  port  of  Ha- 
waii Island.  This  town  has  original  features  of  its 
own ;  an  air  of  novelty  being  given  by  the  great  palms 
which  adorn  the  court-house  square,  and  the  quaint 
and    picturesque    streets,    which    display    a    marked 


284  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

variety  in  architecture  and  occupants,  the  people 
being  a  mixture  of  Asiatics,  Polynesians,  Europeans, 
and  Americans.  There  are  three  public  edifices, — the 
court-house,  custom-house,  and  post-office, — and  in 
addition  an  excellent  library. 

The  town  is  marked  by  a  luxuriant  profusion  of 
foliage,  the  constant  heavy  rainfall  causing  a  prolific 
growth  of  all  kinds  of  trees  and  shrubs.  The  headland 
which  aids  in  forming  the  harbor  is  crowned  with 
cocoa-nut  trees,  and  the  streets  are  flanked  with  palms, 
bamboos,  and  other  tropical  growths.  The  town 
slopes  gently  back  from  the  shore  of  the  bay,  which  is 
enclosed  by  a  crescent-shaped  beach,  said  to  be  the 
most  beautiful  in  the  Pacific.  At  its  outer  extremity 
is  Cocoa-nut  Island,  which  charmingly  completes  the 
curve  with  its  verdant  covering  of  tall  and  graceful 
cocoa-nut  palms. 

The  humid  air  and  over-abundant  rainfall  of  Hilo 
give  an  extraordinary  profusion  to  its  vegetation,  the 
dwellings  being  almost  buried  in  their  luxuriant  gar- 
dens and  the  flow^ering  vines  which  clamber  over  sides 
and  roofs.  A  like  tropical  luxuriance  marks  the 
country  in  the  background,  the  surrounding  hills  being 
covered  with  dense  forest,  while  in  the  vicinity  are 
miles  of  sugar-cane  plantations.  There  are  many 
beautiful  water-falls,  caused  by  the  descent  of  the 
numerous  streams  from  the  higher  levels  into  deep 
and  difficult  ravines. 

The  American  predominates  in  Hilo,  as  in  all  the 
centres  of  population  of  the  island;  but  occidental 
activity  is  not  a  characteristic  of  the  town,  whose  poly- 
glot population  seem  to  think  that  the  chief  end  of 
life  is  to  do  nothing  with  the  least  possible  effort. 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  285 

LAHAINA. 

The  village  of  Lahaina,  on  the  western  coast  of 
Maui,  was  once  the  capital  of  that  island,  the  residence 
of  its  king,  and  the  chief  city  of  the  Hawaiian  group. 
Here  were  the  royal  palace,  the  American  and  British 
consulates,  and  streets  and  harbor  marked  by  bustle 
and  activity.  It  was  the  commercial  as  well  as  the 
political  capital,  and  a  place  of  call  for  the  whaling 
vessels,  which  here  obtained  their  supplies,  frequently 
paying  for  the  same  with  blackfish  oil.  Long  after 
Honolulu  had  become  the  leading  city,  Lahaina  con- 
tinued the  whalers'  port,  the  captains  preferring  it 
from  the  fact  that  their  men  could  obtain  no  liquor 
there,  the  sale  of  spirits  being  restricted  to  Honolulu. 
During  this  period  the  whaling  fleets  brought  the 
principal  business  to  the  islands,  and  were  a  valuable 
source  of  revenue  to  the  government. 

The  place  has  long  since  fallen  from  its  high  estate; 
the  palaces  of  the  kings  and  chiefs  have  sunk  into 
decay,  and  the  merchandise  warehouses  have  disap- 
peared. Commerce  has  fled  to  new  scenes,  following 
royalty,  which  long  since  deserted  Lahaina  in  favor 
of  Honolulu,  and  left  the  latter  a  deserted  village, 
destitute  even  of  a  hotel. 

There  is  a  sugar-mill  here,  the  cane  being  brought 

from  fields  four  or  five  miles  away.     For  two  miles 

along  the  shore  the  village  spreads,  in  a  grove  ot 

bread-fruit,  cocoa-nut,  mango,  tamarind,  orange,  and 

other  trees,  beauty  having  stayed  when  royalty  fled 

away. 

KAILUA. 

Of  the  other  villages  of  the  islands  it  will  suffice  to 

speak  of  Kailua,  on  the  shore  of  Hawaii,  at  the  foot 


286  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

of  the  volcano  Mauna  Hiialalai.  whose  last  eruption 
took  place  a  century  ago.  This  place  was  once  a  royal 
residence  of  the  kings  of  Hawaii,  and  later  a  favorite 
country-seat  of  royalty.  A  large  old  stone  building  is 
pointed  out  as  the  former  palace.  At  Keauhou,  six 
miles  south  of  Kailau,  is  a  spot  of  historic  interest,  that 
in  which  the  great  discoverer,  Captain  Cook,  met  his 
death,  and  where  a  monument  has  been  erected  to  his 
memory.  It  is  a  plain  obelisk  of  concrete,  with  an 
inscription  and  a  surrounding  of  chains  and  old 
cannon. 


VL  THE  PEOPLE  OF  HAWAII. 

THE  NATIVE   POPULATION. 

The  Kanakas,  to  give  the  native  Hawaiians  the 
title  appHed  to  them  by  the  whahng  crews,  are  a  very 
interesting  people.  In  race  they  belong  to  the  Ma- 
layo-Polynesian  stock,  and  may  be  classed  among  the 
finest  of  the  Pacific  peoples,  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  the  New  Zealanders  in  stature  and  in  their 
well-developed  and  muscular  limbs.  The  mass  of  the 
people  are  of  moderate  stature,  but  the  chiefs  and  the 
women  of  their  families  are  of  unusual  height.  Their 
color  is  a  reddish-brown,  resembling  that  of  tarnished 
copper.  They  have  a  broad  face,  with  thick  lips  and 
somewhat  flattened  nose,  while  the  beard  is  thin  and 
the  hair,  usually  raven  black,  is  straight,  or  in  some 
cases  wavy.  They  are  more  hardy  and  active  than  the 
peoples  living  nearer  the  equator,  due  perhaps  to  their 
salubrious  climate  and  the  comparative  sterility  of  their 
soil,  which  renders  necessary  some  degree  of  industry 
in  the  cultivation  of  their  food  plants.  Yet  the  country 
people  take  life  very  easy,  little  exertion  being  neces- 
sary to  obtain  the  means  of  subsistence. 

They  are  a  good-tempered  and  light-hearted  race, 
given  to  mirth  and  laughter,  fond  of  pleasure,  and  of 
the  most  genial  disposition.  Friendly  and  forgiving, 
the  Hawaiian  meets  every  one  with  a  smile,  and  is 
genuinely  hospitable.  He  is  free  from  malice,  harbors 
no  treachery,  and  is  natively  simple-minded,  kindly, 

287 


288  OUR   ISLAND  EMPIRE. 

and  benignant.  Though  seemingly  unfit  to  conduct 
business,  he  makes  a  faithful  and  trusty  employee,  and 
there  is  no  occupation  on  the  islands  in  which  he  is 
not  engaged. 

In  former  days  the  only  dress  worn  by  the  men  was 
the  malo,  a  narrow  strip  of  cloth  wound  round  the  loins 
and  passed  between  the  legs.  Women  wore  the  pau, 
a  short  petticoat  made  of  fapa,  the  bark  of  the  cloth- 
tree  or  paper  mulberry,  and  reaching  from  the  waist 
to  the  knees.  And  this  scanty  attire  was  thrown  oflf 
without  hesitation  w^hen  they  wished  to  indulge  in 
their  favorite  exercise  of  swimming.  The  habits  of  the 
people  were  very  licentious,  female  virtue  being  an 
unknown  thing;  while  the  common  practice  of  in- 
fanticide, particularly  of  female  children,  had  a  serious 
effect  on  the  numbers  of  the  population. 

These  former  social  conditions  have  largely  disap- 
peared before  the  efforts  of  the  missionaries.  Men 
now  wear  a  shirt  and  trousers,  and  those  of  the  better 
class  use  the  full  European  dress ;  while  the  women  all 
wear  the  holoka,  a  loose  garment,  white  or  colored, 
which  reaches  from  the  neck  to  the  feet.  The  head  is 
covered  with  a  colored  handkerchief,  or  a  straw  hat  is 
worn.  Both  sexes  delight  to  adorn  themselves  with 
flower  garlands  and  necklaces  of  colored  seeds.  Some 
of  these  garlands,  or  Icis,  are  very  pretty,  being  made 
of  small  roses,  oleanders,  jessamines,  or  other  flowers, 
strung  into  a  thick  rope  of  bloom.  They  may  be 
made  of  feathers,  or  trails  of  some  green  vine  may  be 
gracefully  twined  round  the  hat  or  worn  round  the 
throat.  The  bright  blossom  of  the  scarlet  hibiscus  is 
much  worn  by  men,  while  others  make  a  more  durable 
garland  by  stringinj^  together  the  orange-colored  sec- 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   HAWAII*.  289 

tions  of  the  fruit  of  the  screw-pine.  This  pretty  cus- 
tom adds  much  to  the  picturesqueness  of  the  native 
attire. 

Kind  and  genial  as  is  the  Hawaiian,  he  is  remark- 
ably brave  and  daring,  his  favorite  sports  being  of  a 
character  whose  danger  would  repel  most  people.  In 
the  old  days  of  war  the  Hawaiians  fought  with  the 
greatest  courage,  some  of  their  battles  lasting  for  days, 
and  ending  in  the  annihilation  of  the  defeated  party. 
Their  expertness  with  the  javelin  was  remarkable. 
One  of  their  games  consisted  in  throwing  spears  at  a 
warrior,  whose  skill  was  shown  in  his  catching  the  first 
in  his  hand  and  with  it  warding  oflf  the  others.  King 
Kamehameha  I.  would  permit  six  spears  to  be  thrown 
at  him  at  once,  all  of  which  he  caught  or  avoided. 

Theif  ordinary  amusements  were  of  the  same  dan- 
gerous character.  After  the  introduction  of  the  horse, 
a  wild  passion  for  riding  gained  control  of  the  people, 
ahd  both  sexes  took  delight  in  dashing  wildly  through 
town  and  country,  without  thought  of  danger.  The 
women  rode  astride,  wearing  over  their  holokas  a  gay 
riding-dress,  which  consisted  of  a  strip  of  crimson, 
purple,  or  yellow  calico  twisted  round  the  body  and 
with  its  ends  flying  in  the  breeze.  Riding  astride  is 
still  the  fashion  for  women  in  Hawaii ;  while  the  men 
engaged  on  the  cattle-ranges  are  as  skilful  horsemen 
and  as  expert  with  the  lasso  as  our  own  cowboys  of 
the  West.  The  saddle  used  is  the  high-peaked  Mexi- 
can afifair,  to  which  huge  wooden  stirrups  are  attached. 

It  is  in  the  water,  however,  that  the  Hawaiian  has 
long  shown  the  greatest  intrepidity,  the  perilous  pas- 
time of  surf-swimming  having  been  for  centuries  the 
favorite  national  sport.     It  was  after  a  day  of  storm, 

19  ' 


290  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

when  the  surf  came  rushing  inward  in  tremendous 
billows,  that  the  native  most  delighted  in  braving  the 
fury  of  the  waves.  Though  the  great  green  billows 
might  be  rushing  in  like  wild  horses  and  breaking  on 
the  beach  with  overwhelming  violence,  the  Hawaiian, 
carrying  his  surf-board, — a  carefully  prepared  wooden 
plank, — did  not  hesitate  to  plunge  into  the  seething 
surf. 

Diving  beneath  the  first  wave,  he  rose  beyond  it 
and  swam  out  to  meet  another,  through  which  he 
again  plunged,  and  thus  dived  under  wave  after  wave 
until  he  reached  the  smoother  water  outside.  If  he 
should  miscalculate  by  a  second  of  time,  he  would  be 
caught  and  dashed  shoreward  by  the  surf,  with  im- 
minent risk  of  being  flung  headlong  on  the  rocks. 
But  failure  was  rare,  the  swimmer  having  gained  skill 
through  practice  from  childhood. 

The  outer  waters  reached,  the  most  exciting  time 
came.  Lying  flat  on  his  board,  the  swimmer  launched 
himself  on  the  highest  w^ave,  and  was  carried  ashore 
at  race-horse  speed.  He  might  be  caught  by  a  follow- 
ing wave  or  fail  to  keep  his  plank  at  the  right  angle, 
in  w'hich  case  he  was  likely  to  have  to  swim  for  his 
life,  sometimes  being  compelled  to  abandon  his  trusty 
board.  But  if  all  went  well  he  w'as  carried  smoothly 
and  safely  shoreward,  the  most  skilful  standing  up- 
right on  their  boards  and  shouting  with  glee  and 
triumph  as  they  were  borne  to  the  beach.  Surf-riding, 
however,  appears  to  be  obsolete,  and  a  surf-board  is 
to-day  a  very  difflcult  thing  to  obtain. 

Not  only  men,  but  women  and  boys,  were  remark- 
ably expert  in  the  water,  and  the  boys  of  Honolulu 
are  to-day  ahvays  ready  to  dive  after  a  flung  coin, 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   HAWAII.  291 

usually  catching  it  before  it  reaches  the  bottom.  It 
was  not  only  in  the  ocean  that  the  Hawaiian  swim- 
mers exhibited  their  daring.  They  did  not  hesitate  to 
trust  themselves  to  the  dashing  waters  of  cascades, 
darting  in  glee  down  the  shooting  and  seemingly 
death-dealing  liquid.  Even  the  long  flumes  which 
carry  water  from  the  hills  to  the  sugar-mills  are  made 
use  of  by  the  workmen  to  save  a  walk,  and  a  young 
married  couple  is  said  to  have  made  their  wedding- 
trip  to  the  coast  down  one  of  these  flumes. 

The  fearlessness  of  the  Hawaiian  boatmen  makes 
them  indispensable  in  the  traffic  along  the  coast. 
Many  of  the  landings  are  very  dangerous,  and  the 
boats  which  carry  passengers  or  freight  ashore  from 
the  steamers  are  always  in  peril  of  being  upset  by  the 
waves  or  crushed  on  the  rocks.  Yet  the  boatmen  are 
so  skilful  that  it  is  a  rare  event  for  one  of  them  to  be 
drowned.  They  swim  like  fish,  and  the  capsizing  of 
a  boat  is  a  matter  of  small  moment  to  them,  while  the 
imperilled  passengers  are  usually  safe  in  their  hands. 
The  indolence  of  the  native  ends  when  he  has  occa- 
sion to  go  to  sea.  In  his  light  canoe  he  makes  his  way 
daringly  through  the  surf,  deftly  using  his  paddle  to 
avoid  the  beach-combers,  and  quickly  passing  the 
danger-line  into  the  open  waters  beyond. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  contests  of  these 
bold  swimmers  with  the  sharks  of  the  coast.  When 
the  shark  turns  to  snap  at  his  intended  victim  the 
native  dives,  and  the  great  jaws  come  emptily  to- 
gether. A  skilful  dagger-thrust  may  end  the  contest, 
or  the  Hawaiian  may  be  armed  only  with  a  piece  of 
sharpened  iron  eight  or  ten  inches  long,  which  he 
thrusts  into  the  monster's  mouth  as  it  opens  to  seize 


292  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

liiiii,  the  jaws  being  propped  open  by  the  iron  and  the 
great  brute  rendered  helpless. 

Dancing  is  one  of  the  amusements  of  the  people, 
the  favorite  performance  being  a  voluptuous  dance 
called  the  hula-hula,  which  consists  of  movements  of 
the  body  timed  to  a  doleful  music,  the  feet  taking  little 
part  in  it.  The  usual  costume  is  a  short  skirt  made  of 
grass,  the  upper  body  adorned  with  flower  garlands. 
Nude  dancing,  formerly  common,  is  prohibited  by  law, 
though  still  occasionally  performed. 

As  regards  the  industrial  occupations  of  the  Ha- 
waiians,  their  employment  as  boatmen  is  but  one  out 
of  many,  they  being  engaged  in  a  great  variety  of  oc- 
cupations. Among  them  are  many  blacksmiths,  car- 
penters, painters,  machinists,  engineers,  and  teamsters. 
Others  serve  as  clerks  or  book-keepers,  or  as  editors, 
school-teachers,  or  clergymen.  Their  occupations  in- 
clude cattle-raising  and  sugar-planting,  while  they  fill 
most  of  the  clerical  positions  under  the  government. 
The  pressmen  and  compositors  in  the  printing-offices 
are  mainly  natives;  they  are  employed  in  the  telephone 
offices,  and  the  heavy  work-  in  iron  foundries  and  in 
the  loading  of  vessels  is  almost  wholly  done  by  them. 
Considering  that  less  than,  a  century  ago  they  were 
in  their  pristine  condition  of  semi-savagery,  their 
progress  has  certainly  been  phenomenal. 

The  language  of  the  Hawaiians,  now  rapidly  dying 
out,  is  a  branch  of  the  widely-diffused  Malayo-Poly- 
nesian  tongue,  which  is  so  similar  throughout  that 
peoples  as  widely  separated  as  the  Hawaiians  and  New 
Zealanders  can  with  some  difficulty  understand  each 
other.  It  is  a  soft  and  harmonious  form  of  speech, 
largely  vocalic  in  structure,  the  only  consonants  being 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   HAWAII.  293 

k,  I,  m,  n,  and  p.  These  with  the  five  vowels,  the  gently 
aspirated  //,  and  the  vocalic  iv,  make  up  the  alphabet 
in  use.  R  and  /,  formerly  used,  have  been  suppressed 
in  favor  of  /  and  k,  the  word  taro,  for  instance,  becom- 
ing kalo.  What  little  is  left  of  this  language  must  soon 
vanish  in  view  of  the  common  teaching  of  English  in 
the  schools. 

DWELLINGS  AND  FOOD. 

The  houses  of  the  natives  were  formerly  mere  huts 
of  grass,  their  roofs  being  thatched  by  and  their  walls 
made  of  dried  grass.  Wooden  houses  are  now  used 
in  Honolulu  and  most  of  the  country  districts,  the 
grass  house  being  rarely  seen.  Large  and  substantial 
dwellings  would  be  none  too  safe  in  a  country  subject 
to  earthquakes,  and  of  little  utility  for  a  people  whose 
mild  climate  temgts  them  to  live  mainly  out  of  doors^ 
What  little  cooking  is  needed  is  done  outside.  The 
oven  consists  of  a  hole  in  the  ground,  in  which  a  fire 
is  lighted  and  stones  are  heated.  The  fire  being  re- 
moved, the  food  is  wrapped  in  leaves  and  placed  in  the 
hole  beside  the  hot  stones,  where  it  is  covered  up  and 
left  to  the  cooking  process.  The  houses  are  princi- 
pally utilized  for  sleeping,  the  whole  family  being 
stretched  upon  the  floor  and  covered  with  a  broad 
sheet  of  tapa,  or  native  cloth. 

The  taro  tuber,  as  already  stated,  serves  as  the  prin- 
cipal article  of  food,  either  cooked  or  formed  into  the 
favorite  edible  poi.  The  sweet  potato,  yam,  bread- 
fruit, cocoa-nut,  banana,  papaya,  and  other  food-stufTs 
and  fruits  serve  to  vary  the  diet.  The  edible  dogs, 
formerly  the  favorite  food  viand  at  a  Hawaiian  high 
feast,  were  carefully  fattened  on  poi,  and  were  baked 
in  the  manner  now  employed  in  baking  pig  and  fish, 


294  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

a  method  which  has  received  the  praises  of  all  epicures 
who  have  tested  the  result. 

This  method  is  the  common  one  of  cooking  with 
heated  stones.  The  pig  is  slain  and  dressed,  and  is 
then  rubbed  upon  the  hot  stones  until  the  hair  comes 
ofT.  The  body  is  filled  with  heated  stones,  placed  in 
the  imii,  or  earth-oven,  and  covered  with  hot  stones 
and  taro  and  banana  leaves.  The  excavation  is  then 
closed  with  earth  and  the  meat  allowed  to  roast  and 
steam  for  hours.  The  result  is  a  thoroughly  well  done, 
crisp,  and  juicy  roast  pig. 

A  luaii,  or  native  feast,  is  one  of  the  great  occasions 
in  Hawajj.  The  natives  of  that  country  are  credited 
with  cannibalistic  feasts  in  olden  times;  and  it  is  said 
that  when  the  question  of  how  they  should  dispose  of 
the  corpse  of  the  great  Kamehameha  came  up,  some 
one  calmly  proposed  that  they  should  eat  it.  There 
is  the  best  of  reason  to  believe,  however,  that  all  this 
is  a  calumny,  and  that  the  Hawaiians  were  never  can- 
nibals. Their  feasts  have  a  decidedly  civilized  flavor. 
A  luau  is  a  sort  of  combined  picnic, — some  parties 
providing  the  poi,  others  the  meats,  others  the  fruits, 
others  the  kulolo,  a  pudding  made  of  grated  cocoa-nut 
and  taro,  and  others  the  poi-palau,  a  compound  of  poi 
and  sweet  potato.  Limu.  a  fresh-water  moss,  is  a 
favorite  relish,  as  also  is  the  candle-nut  roasted  and 
salted. 

The  meats  are  cooked  in  the  imu  in  the  method 
described,  the  fish  and  pieces  of  beef  and  pork  being 
wrapped  in  young  taro  leaves,  which  absorb  their 
juices,  tough  ti  leaves  being  bound  round  the  whole. 
Nothing  can  be  more  delicious  than  meats  hot  from 
the  imu,  while  the  taro  leaves  yield  a  delicate  form  of 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   HAWAII.  295 

spinach.  Slices  of  cooked  taro  and  other  vegetables, 
fruits,  and  bowls  of  poi  form  the  remainder  of  the 
feast. 

When  the  meal  is  ready,  the  participants  in  the  feast 
sit  or  squat  around  the  matting  on  which  it  is  placed, 
and  each  proceeds  to  eat  with  no  other  aid  than  that 
of  his  fingers,  while  mirth  and  good  humor  prevail. 
A  luau  used  to  be  given  in  honor  of  every  important 
event,  followed  usually  by  hula  dances  and  other  fes- 
tivities. 

INHABITANTS  OF  FOREIGN  ORIGIN. 

As  has  been  already  stated,  the  Hawaiian  popula- 
tion has  rapidly  decreased  since  the  period  of  Captain 
Cook's  visit  to  the  islands,  and  this  decrease  still  con- 
tinues. It  may  end  in  a  complete  disappearance  of 
the  race,  the  few  survivors  being  swamped  by  inter- 
marriage. This  decrease  has  been  ascribed  to  im- 
morality, infanticide,  and  the  introduction  of  foreign 
diseases.  The  women  are  less  numerous  than  the 
men,  and  the  married  ones  have  few  children,  the 
majority  of  them  having  none.  The  maternal  instinct 
seems  largely  lacking,  and  children  are  greatly  neg- 
lected. 

The  decrease  in  population  due  to  these  causes  has 
been  made  up  in  part  by  the  importation  of  foreign 
laborers.  Chinese  came  at  first  in  large  numbers  as 
plantation  hands,  principally  after  1875.  Later,  to 
supply  the  increasing  demand,  many  Portuguese  were 
brought  from  Madeira,  and  a  small  number  of  Poly- 
nesians were  introduced  from  other  islands.  Within 
the  more  recent  period  Japanese  have  been  brought 
in  under  contract,  until  they  have  surpassed  the  Chi- 


296  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

ncse  in  number,  while  at  present  the  laboring  popula- 
tion, of  Chinese,  Japanese,  and  Portuguese,  is  double 
that  of  the  full-blooded  Hawaiians.  The  remaining 
population  is  principally  composed  of  Americans, 
British,  and  Germans,  the  Americans  being  in  the 
lead. 

The  importation  of  foreign  laborers  was  largely  a 
result  of  the  disinclination  of  the  natives  to  plantation 
work.  The  same  difficulty  arose  with  the  Portuguese, 
who  preferred  work  of  other  kinds,  and  sought  open- 
ings for  employment  ofT  the  plantation.  Even  the 
Chinese,  who  were  expected  to  solve  the  difficulty, 
have  branched  off  into  various  other  occupations, 
many  of  them  engaging  in  market-gardening,  while 
others  bought  up  the  swampy  tracts  of  land  and  con- 
verted them  into  prolific  rice-fields.  Their  skill  and 
industry  have  enabled  them  to  produce  such  crops  of 
rice,  fruit,  and  vegetables  as  Hawaii  had  never  before 
seen. 

The  plantation  laborers  are  principally  Chinese  and 
Japanese,  brought  over  under  contract;  their  wages 
at  present  twelve  to  fifteen  dollars  per  month,  of  which 
they  send  home  to  China  or  Japan  every  cent  they  can 
possibly  save, — and  these  Asiatics  can  live  on  what 
would  be  speedy  starvation  to  a  white  man.  Cheaply 
as  the  Chinese  can  live,  the  Japanese  coolie  is  said  to 
surpass  him  in  the  art,  and,  small  as  are  his  wages,  he 
manages  to  obtain  food  and  clothing  and  send  home 
for  future  use  nearly  the  whole  sum.  It  is  said  that 
some  of  the  lower-class  Japanese  live  on  one  dollar 
per  month,  their  diet  being  rice  and  water  and  their 
dress  cast-off  clothing.  The  planters  usually  furnish 
huts  for  their  laborers  and  medical  attendance  when 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   HAWAII.  297 

they  are  sick,  but  nothing  more.  The  Portuguese  and 
Hawaiians  are  better  paid  than  the  Orientals,  receiving 
from  sixteen  dollars  to  eighteen  dollars  monthly. 

The  contract-labor  system  was  established  in  the 
days  of  royalty,  and  was  solely  a  governmental  affair; 
the  Japanese  government  hiring  laborers  to  the  Ha- 
waiian government,  which  in  turn  hired  them  to  the 
planters  for  a  fixed  period  and  a  stipulated  sum.  The 
laborer  had  no  voice  in  the  matter,  and  during  the 
contract  period  was  virtually  a  slave,  an  attempt  to 
leave  the  plantation  being  followed  by  severe  punish- 
ment. 

The  new  status  of  Hawaii,  as  a  part  of  the  United 
States,  puts  an  end  to  the  bringing  in  of  laborers  under 
any  such  system.  The  introduction  of  Chinese  labor 
is  positively  forbidden  under  any  circumstances,  and 
no  Japanese  can  be  brought  in  under  contract.  These 
immigration  laws  form  an  awkward  problem  for  the 
sugar-kings  to  handle,  in  view  of  the  steady  drift  from 
plantation  life  of  the  present  laboring  population. 
Just  how  the  difficulty  is  to  be  overcome  does  not 
clearly  appear,  unless  it  be  by  the  introduction  of 
negro  labor.  "  The  negro  might  cost  a  little  more," 
say  some  of  the  planters,  "  but  he  is  capable  of  doing 
more  work,  and  such  a  change  is  likely  to  be  profit- 
able." 

The  Americans  and  Europeans  form  the  governing, 
planting,  and  mercantile  classes,  and  to  their  enterprise 
and  capital  are  due  all  the  steps  of  progress  and  indus- 
trial development  to  be  seen.  Of  the  American  resi- 
dents of  the  islands  a  very  considerable  proportion 
were  born  there,  being  the  descendants  of  the  early 
missionaries  who,  through  the  influence  of  the  Ameri- 


298  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

can  Board  of  Missions,  were  induced  to  settle  perma- 
nently in  the  islands,  as  centres  of  good  influence  with 
the  people.  These  islanders  of  foreign  paternity  now 
number  nearly  8000,  and  form  a  solid  basis  for  the 
new  status  of  Hawaii  as  an  American  territory.  A 
large  increase  in  this  American  population  is  likely  to 
take  place  under  the  new  condition  of  affairs,  and  a 
marked  development  of  the  resources  of  the  country 
mayjjc  confidently  looked  for. 


VII.  AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 

GENERAL  CONDITIONS. 

The  islands  which  an  immigrant  desiring  to  engage 
in  agricultural  enterprises  would  find  of  most  interest 
are  four  in  number, — Hawaii,  Maui,  Oahu,  and  Kauai. 
Of  these,  Hawaii,  with  its  copious  rains  on  the  wind- 
ward side  and  variety  of  soil  and  climate,  is  full  of 
promise,  particularly  in  sugar  and  coffee  production. 
The  Kona  district  has  an  extended  reputation  for4he 
excellence  of  its  coffee,  which  some  claim  to  equal  or 
surpass  the  best  Mocha  or  Java.  Numerous  sugar 
plantations  have  been  established  here,  while  there  are 
several  hundred  coffee-planters,  owning  from  200,000 
trees  to  one  or  a  few  acres.  Thousands  of  acres  lie 
uncultivated,  awaiting  capital  and  enterprise. 

The  same  may  be  said  of  Maui,  on  which,  also, 
thousands  of  acres  lie  fallow.  It  has  its  sugar  planta- 
tions and  coffee  lands,  the  latter  having  been  just 
opened  up.  The  western  slopes  of  Haleakala,  the  main 
mountain,  are  covered  with  small  farms  devoted  to 
potatoes,  corn,  beans,  and  pigs.  Oahu  is  rich  with  op- 
portunities to  the  investor.  Its  railroad  line  opens  up 
rich  coffee  and  farming  lands,  and,  if  extended  round 
the  island,  as  proposed,  must  bring  into  cultivation  its 
many  fertile  valleys.  Kauai,  the  "  Garden  Island,"  as 
it  is  called,  is  very  well  watered  and  luxuriant  in  vege- 
tation. At  present  it  is  largely  devoted  to  sugar-cane, 
though  there  is  considerable  rice  grown.     Coffee  has 

299 


300  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

been  tried  and  failed;  but  this  was  through  lack  of 
judgment,  and  there  is  much  land  likely  to  be  suited  to 
this  crop. 

SUGAR  PRODUCTION. 

Captain  Cook  and  his  successor  Vancouver  were 
particularly  impressed,  in  their  visit  to  the  Hawaiian 
Islands,  with  the  extraordinary  luxuriance  of  the 
sugar-cane  and  its  unusual  sweetness.  Stalks  of  it 
were  seen  twenty  feet  in  height,  while  it  was  found 
growing  freely  in  every  valley  of  Kauai  as  if  it  were 
native  to  the  soil.  It  was  probably  introduced  by 
some  earlier  visitors  centuries  before;  but  the  genial 
climate  and  the  rich  soil  furnished  by  the  disintegrated 
lava  seem  to  have  brought  it  to  a  perfection  nowhere 
else  attained,  and  to  a  richness  in  sugar  reached  in 
no  other  lands. 

The  cane  was  everywhere  cultivated  in  the  rude 
fashion  of  barbarian  agriculture;  its  sweet  pith  being 
a  favorite  with  the  islanders,  whom  it  served  both  for 
food  and  drink.  Early  in  the  nineteenth  century, 
foreign  visitors,  chiefly  Chinese,  tried  to  produce  sugar 
from  the  cane,  using  primitive  methods;  but  the  first 
intelligent  effort  was  made  by  the  American  firm  of 
Ladd  &  Co.,  who  purchased  a  tract  of  land  at  Koloa, 
on  Kauai,  in  1835,  planted  it  with  cane,  and  erected 
the  first  sugar-mill  on  the  islands.  Horses  or  mules 
formed  their  motive-power,  water-power  being  after- 
wards used,  and  finally  steam.  Stone  and  wooden 
rollers  were  first  used  to  grind  the  cane. 

This  pioneer  enterprise  has  been  succeeded  by  a 
large  number  of  plantations,  many  of  them  of  immense 
extent.  There  are  said  to  be  about  seventy  of  these 
monster  plantations  on  the  islands,  worth  more  than 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  301 

half  a  million  of  dollars  each.  Of  these  plantations, 
that  at  Sprecklesville,  on  Maui,  is  not  only  the  largest 
in  Hawaii,  but  is  said  to  be  the  largest  in  the  world. 
It  embraces  40,000  acres  of  cane,  and  is  owned  by  two 
sons  of  Claus  Spreckles,  the  Californian  sugar-king. 

With  the  production  of  sugar  in  Hawaii  was  closely 
associated  the  question  of  irxigation,  much  of  the  land 
on  the  leeward  side  of  the  mountains  lacking  the  de-  /^ 
gree  of  rainfall  needed  by  the  cane,  though  their  sur- 
face layer  of  red  lava  dust  was  capable,  by  the  aid  of 
water,  of  being  made  highly  fertile.  The  richness  of 
the  disintegrated  lava  is  said  to  be  due  to  the  presence 
of  a  very  large  proportion  of  phosphates  and  nitrogen, 
and  to  this  is  due  also  the  permanence  of  its  fertility. 
When,  after  yielding  many  crops,  the  generous  soil 
shows  signs  of  exhaustion,  its  fertility  can  be  restored 
by  sprinkling  it  with  the  ashes  of  burnt  weeds  and 
refuse  cane.  The  cane  from  the  crushing-mills  thus 
becomes  the  natural  manure  for  the  fields,  giving 
them  back  their  lost  potash.  The  volcanic  soil  has  the 
further  advantage  of  yielding  good  natural  drainage. 

The  cane  found  growing  by  Captain  Cook  has  been 
replaced  by  the  best  varieties  from  other  sugar-grow- 
ing countries,  different  canes  being  used  in  accordance 
with  the  difference  in  soil  and  altitude.  The  irrigation 
works  consist  of  great  flumes,  or  wooden  aqueducts, 
which  cause  the  water  of  the  mountain  streams  to 
spread  over  the  lowland  plains.  By  this  free  use  of 
water  a  wilderness  of  red  dust  has  been  converted  into 
fertile  fields  of  cane,  whose  green  expanse  is  visible 
not  only  on  the  low  coast  lands  but  on  the  mountain 
sides.  The  flumes  which  convey  water  to  the  lower 
fields  serve  a  second  useful  purpose,  the  cane  from 


302  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

plantations  on  the  higher  grounds  being  floated  by 
them  to  the  crushing-mills  in  the  valleys  below.  In 
this  way  the  cut  cane  is  sometimes  transported  by 
water  for  a  distance  of  several  miles, — a  great  saving 
of  labor.  The  workmen,  as  already  stated,  occa- 
sionally save  themselves  a  down-hill  walk  by  taking 
passage  in  this  water-carriage,  in  company  with  the 
cane,  or  the  logs  for  fuel  which  are  sent  down  in  the 
same  way. 

The  cane,  after  its  water-carriage  of  miles  to  the 
mill,  is  delivered  on  the  carrier  leading  to  the  crushing- 
rollers,  while  the  water,  after  having  done  its  duty, 
falls  through  an  open  grating,  and  is  carried  onward 
to  irrigate  fields  at  a  lower  level  than  the  mill.  It  may 
be  said  that  this  ingenious  method  of  cane  transporta- 
tion is  only  applied  under  favoring  conditions,  the 
railway  being  the  usual  method  of  carrying  the  cane. 

The  aqueducts  used  to  water  the  arid  fields  are  ex- 
tensive and  needed  much  engineering  skill  in  their 
construction.  The  district  of  Makawao,  in  Kauai, 
with  its  great  width  of  arable  land,  is  irrigated  by  a 
conduit  thirty  miles  long,  descending  at  a  slight  grade, 
nowhere  more  than  twelve  feet  to  the  mile.  Numerous 
ravines  needed  to  be  crossed  by  the  aid  of  large  pipes, 
in  which  the  water-pressure  was  so  great  that  it  taxed 
the  resources  of  the  engineer  to  provide  the  necessary 
resisting  power.  At  the  Maliko  gulch,  500  yards  wide, 
the  pipes  are  carried  to  the  bottom  of  the  ravine  and 
up  again  on  the  other  side.  These  w^orks  give  fertility 
to  the  plantations  on  the  mountain  side,  and  irrigate 
an  expanse  of  several  thousand  acres  of  former  desert 
in  the  plain  below. 

The  plantation  at  Ewa,  on  Oahu,  is  irrigated  by 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  303 

water  drawn  from  artesian  wells  of  inexhaustible  yield. 
The  water  is  pumped  up  into  stand-pipes,  from  which 
it  is  conveyed  in  conduits  to  the  different  sections  of 
the  great  plantation,  every  portion  of  which  receives 
just  the  necessary  quantity  of  moisture.  Thousands 
of  acres  of  land  are  watered  by  these  great  works,  the 
life-giving  streams  being  carried  for  miles  in  every 
direction. 

No  small  amount  of  skill  is  needed  properly  to  dis- 
tribute the  water  to  the  hills  of  cane,  the  fields  being  a 
net-work  of  flumes  and  ditches,  through  which  the 
water  flows.  The  canes  are  planted  in  short  rows, 
separated  by  little  ditches,  in  which  the  water  is 
allowed  to  stand  at  a  depth  of  several  inches  for  a  day 
or  two  at  a  time.  Each  row  is  opened  in  succession 
with  the  hoe,  the  water  let  in,  and  the  ditch  then 
dammed  up,  the  water  being  allowed  to  soak  slowly 
into  the  ground  at  the  roots  of  the  plants. 

The  remarks  here  made  apply  to  the  western  sides 
of  the  islands.  On  the  eastern  or  rainy  sides  irrigation 
is  not  called  for,  the  rainfall  being  often  over-abun- 
dant. The  moist  atmosphere  checks  rapidity  of 
growth  as  compared  with  the  dry  and  sunny  regions, 
and  the  cane  may  make  no  more  progress  in  twenty 
months  than  it  does  in  twelve  months  in  irrigated 
fields.  In  the  elevated  fields,  slowness  in  maturing  is 
correlated  with  greater  density  of  product  and  much 
superior  yield  of  sugar. 

The  sugar-planter  is  not  without  his  enemies,  espe- 
cially rats  and  worms, — the  former  gnawing  the  cane 
for  its  sweet  pulp,  the  latter  boring  into  and  riddling  it 
internally,  so  that  a  seemingly  sound  cane  may  be  a 
honeycomb  within  and  all  its  sugary  juices  gone. 


304  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

The  rat  is  the  most  persistent  enemy  of  the  planter; 
his  ravages  causing  great  loss  in  cane  and  considerable 
expense  in  endeavors  to  circumvent  him.  In  Jamaica, 
where  the  rats  proved  an  equal  nuisance,  numerous 
expedients  were  from  time  to  time  vainly  adopted. 
Cats  were  first  tried,  but  were  worsted  in  the  fray. 
The  ferret  was  then  introduced,  but  yielded  to  the 
attacks  of  the  chigoa-flea,  an  enemy  to  all  imported 
animals.  The  Cuban  ant,  a  useful  rat-destroyer,  was 
next  tried,  and  also  the  great  Agua  toad.  These  were 
serviceable,  but  the  rats  increased;  and  it  became 
necessary  to  employ  rat-catchers,  with  their  troops  of 
terrier  dogs,  their  traps,  and  poisons.  All  these 
methods  proved  useless,  and  finally  the  Indian  mon- 
goose was  introduced,  the  natural  foe  of  rats  and 
snakes.  This  proved  effective,  and  the  rats  almost 
disappeared,  districts  which  were  formerly  abandoned 
in  despair  to  the  devouring  rat  being  again  brought 
under  cultivation. 

Rats  are  as  destructive  in  Hawaii  as  in  Jamaica,  and 
the  rat-catcher  has  long  been  one  of  the  most  useful 
characters  on  the  islands.  With  his  little  corps  of 
twenty  or  thirty  terriers  he  is  able  to  make  havoc  in 
the  army  of  rodents,  and  in  a  few  days  may  for  the 
time  being  clear  a  plantation  of  these  pests.  The 
mongoose  was  introduced  about  1880,  and  proved  a 
very  effective  ally  of  the  planters,  increasing  in  num- 
bers at  a  rapid  ratio  and  quickly  making  havoc  among 
the  rodents. 

The  mongoose  has  one  weakness, — it  loves  eggs 
and  poultry.  The  rats  destroyed,  the  new  animals 
became  something  of  a  pest  in  turn,  giving  their  atten- 
tion to  the  poultry  yard.     It  is  claimed  that  they  are 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  305 

less  destructive  in  this  direction  than  the  rats,  and  that, 
being  easily  caught,  one  or  two  dogs  suffice  to  clear 
a  plantation  of  these  inconvenient  allies.  However 
that  may  be,  the  poultry-raisers  have  gained  legisla- 
tion in  their  favor,  and  a  law  was  passed  in  1892  for 
the  destruction  of  these  foreign  rat-killers. 

The  yield  of  sugar  by  Hawaiian  cane  is  large,  aver- 
aging four  to  live  tons  per  acre,  and  reaching  under 
favorable  conditions  eight  or  more  tons.  The  cane 
needs  about  twelve  months  to  reach  maturity  in  irri- 
gated fields,  and  the  cutting  and  grinding  begin  in 
January  and  continue  to  June.  No  description  of  the 
process  of  sugar-making  is  here  called  for,  as  this  pro- 
cess has  been  fully  described  under  the  head  of  Cuba. 
The  methods  pursued  in  Hawaii  do  not  differ  from 
those  of  Cuba. 

The  crushing  apparatus  in  some  of  the  Hawaiian 
mills  is  of  unsurpassed  effectiveness.  From  three  to 
five  crushing-rolls  are  used  in  the  Cuban  mills,  but  the 
great  Ewa  mill  on  Oahu  has  no  less  than  nine  rollers, 
working  on  improved  plans,  and  crushing  the  cane 
so  thoroughly  that  it  leaves  the  rolls  in  rags  and 
powder.  The  dry  product,  empty  of  every  vestige  of 
juice,  furnishes  the  only  fuel  used  in  the  mill. 

In  some  of  the  mills  the  diffusion  process  of  extract- 
ing juice  from  the  cane  replaces  the  crushing  one.  The 
latter,  however,  is  usually  preferred.  More  juice  can 
be  obtained  by  diffusion,  but  the  juice  from  the 
crushed  cane  yields  more  sugar.  The  Ewa  mill  yields 
93.08  per  cent,  of  the  total  juice,  and  the  gain  in  sugar 
is  eight  per  cent,  over  that  yielded  by  the  diffusion 
plant  at  first  employed. 

The  process  of  skimming,  boiling,  and  liming  does 


3o6  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

not  need  to  be  ag^ain  described.  It  will  suffice  to  say 
tbat  the  thickening  syrup,  when  finally  drawn  from 
the  vacuum-pans,  is  run  off  into  the  centrifugals, 
which  resemble  circular  churns  with  wire  screens. 
These  are  made  to  revolve  at  an  extraordinary  rate  of 
speed;  the  result  being  a  separation  of  solid  and  liquid, 
the  syrup  being  thrown  through  the  wire  screens  and 
leaving  dry  sugar  behind.  This,  still  hot,  is  drawn  off 
into  bags  and  conveyed  to  the  warehouses.  The  boil- 
ing of  the  syrup  is  repeated  until  all  the  sugar  it  con- 
tains is  extracted,  each  new  boiling  yielding  sugar  of 
a  lower  grade. 

The  sugar  product  of  Hawaii  has  steadily  increased 
for  many  years.  In  i860  the  export  was  quoted'  at 
1,144,271  pounds.  In  1877  it  had  risen  to  25,575,965 
pounds,  and  in  1881  to  more  than  88,000,000  pounds. 
The  later  crops  are  estimated  in  tons,  that  of  1891 
being  146,174  tons,  and  that  of  1897,  248,555  tons. 
The  1898  crop  has  been  estimated  at  248,576  tons,  of 
which  there  are  apportioned  to  the  island  of  Hawaii 
126,737,  Kauai  51,864,  Maui  41,047,  and  Oahu  28,929 
tons.  Nearly  70,000  persons — men,  women,  and  chil- 
dren— are    engaged    in    the    sugar    culture    in    some 

capacity. 

COFFEE  CULTURE. 

Coffee  finds  itself  much  at  home  in  Hawaii,  espe- 
cially in  the  island  of  that  name,  where,  in  the  Kona 
district,  it  has  spread  into  forests  of  semi-wild  plants. 
These  we  have  already  described.  It  would  not  be 
easy  to  find  a  more  barren  and  sterile  soil  than  that 
of  Kona,  yet  here  the  coffee-plant  flourishes,  being 
often,  as  is  said,  "  planted  with  a  crowbar."  That  is, 
a  hole  is  driven  through  the  crust  of  lava  rock,  and 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  307 

the  coffee-twig,  dug  up  from  the  forest,  is  planted  in 
the  soil  below.     Here  it  grows  and  bears  luxuriantly. 

The  soil  of  the  Puna  district  is  similarly  lava- 
covered,  Kilauea  having  long  poured  her  floods  of 
liquid  rock  over  its  surface.  Yet  coffe*  thrives  here, 
and  of  a  quality  nowhere  surpassed.  Some  of  the 
plantations  contain  from  25,000  to  60,000  trees,  there 
being  over  fifty  plantations  where  there  was  dense 
forest  a  few  years  ago. 

The  soil  of  Hawaii  is  of  a  dark  chocolate  or  red- 
dish-brown hue,  the  darker  being  the  best  adapted  to 
coffee.  Being  of  volcanic  origin,  its  fertility  varies 
according  to  the  degree  of  disintegration  of  lava  and 
the  quantity  of  decomposed  vegetable  matter.  When 
the  ground  is  covered  with  broken  A-a  lava  the  soil 
is  very  rich.  Stones  in  coffee  land  are  of  utility  as  an 
aid  to  drainage,  but  are  not  otherwise  necessary. 

The  coffee  crop  succeeds  best  at  a  height  of  from 
500  to  2000  feet,  though  there  are  thousands  of  fine 
trees  at  sea-level.  These,  however,  are  more  subject 
to  blight  than  those  at  a  higher  altitude.  42°  F.  is  the 
lowest  temperature  the  coffee-plant  will  bear,  and  from 
48°  to  80°  is  thought  to  be  the  best  for  successful 
culture.  Wind  is  its  worst  enemy,  and  wind-breaks 
of  some  kind  are  necessary,  the  banana  and  the  castor 
bean  being  among  the  plants  used  for  this  purpose. 
As  regards  shade,  which  is  thought  so  important  in 
Cuba,  opinions  in  Hawaii  differ,  some  planters  shading 
their  plants,  others  exposing  them  freely  to  the  sun. 

The  first  coffee  sent  from  Hawaii  to  the  United 
States  was  the  ill-cleaned,  poorly-cured  product  from 
the  semi-wild  trees.  Even  in  that  condition  it  attained 
a  reputation  for  excellence  which  stands  the  planter  in 


3o8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

good  stead  to-day.  With  careful  culture,  the  coffee 
grown  here  should  attain  a  high  standing.  The  deli- 
cacy of  its  aroma  is  beyond  question;  while  it  ranks 
as  a  specialty,  being  somewhat  unlike  the  Central 
American  and  South  American  coffees  in  flavor.  Al- 
though Hawaiian  coffee  has  been  grown  and  marketed 
for  years,  its  cultivation  on  an  extended  scale  and  on 
scientific  principles  has  been  only  recently  attempted, 
and  the  full  result  cannot  yet  be  stated. 

Of  the  Hawaiian  coffee  lands,  the  government  holds 
76,000  acres,  which  are  open  for  sale.  The  w^hole  ex- 
tent of  coffee  lands  is  about  200,000  acres,  of  which 
178,000  are  in  Hawaii,  14,000  in  Maui,  3500  in  Oahu, 
and  1500  in  Kauai.  Much  of  this  is  as  yet  inaccessible 
from  lack  of  roads.  The  government  lands  can  be 
obtained  at  an  annual  rental  of  from  one  to  two  and 
a  half  dollars  per  acre,  or  can  be  leased  at  eight  per 
cent,  on  a  valuation  of  five  dollars  per  acre,  with  privi- 
lege to  purchase  at  that  price.  Homesteads  are 
limited  to  eight  acres  at  nominal  cost,  the  purpose  of 
the  government  being  to  prevent  large  corporations 
from  obtaining  control. 

In  the  year  1896  there  were  about  10,000  acres 
planted  in  coffee,  the  great  bulk  of  which  had  been 
very  recently  cleared.  In  1898  there  were  222  planta- 
tions in  all,  of  which  193  were  on  the  island  of  Hawaii. 
As  may  be  seen,  the  industry  is  still  in  its  infancy. 
The  coffee  is  subject  to  injury  from  blight  and  insects, 
though  as  yet  no  serious  trouble  has  been  experienced. 
The  prevailing  labor  on  the  coffee  plantations  is  Jap- 
anese, the  laborers  being  paid  from  twelve  dollars  to 
fifteen  dollars  each  per  month,  without  board.  The 
planters,  however,  prefer  Chinese  laborers,  as  they  are 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  309 

more  tractable  and  need  less  overseeing.  The  labor 
problem,  indeed,  is  a  question  of  serious  import,  the 
native  Hawaiians  not  liking  field  labor,  and  much  pre- 
ferring employment  on  the  cattle  ranches.  The  ques- 
tion of  picking  the  cofifee  remains  to  be  solved.  Na- 
tive women  and  children  may  perhaps  be  employed, 
though  there  are  certain  obstacles  in  the  way  of  this. 
No  description  of  the  modes  of  coffee  culture  and 
preparation  for  market  is  here  necessary,  as  these  do 
not  differ  essentially  from  the  methods  pursued  in 
Cuba,  as  already  described.  The  two  crops  above 
named — sugar  and  coffee — are  the  leading  plantation 
products  of  Hawaii,  the  government  lands,  estimated 
at  1,782,500  acres,  being  thus  divided: 

Coffee 76,27(4 

Sugar      25,6261 

RTce 977? 

Grazing 4Sl,2oo| 

High  forest 68i,28o| 

Rugged  mountains 227,0001 

Barren  lands 300>ooo| 

Homesteads,  government  interest  in 20,000 

It  is  estimated  that  in  all  there  are  2,000,000  acres 
of  grazing  and  290,000  of  arable  soil  on  the  islands. 
The  upland  soil  is  generally  thin  and  poor;  but  at  the 
bases  of  the  mountains,  where  abrasion,  disintegra- 
tion, and  accumulation  of  vegetable  mould  have  gone 
on  for  ages,  there  are  extensive  fertile  tracts,  while  the 
thinner  soils  yield  an  abundance  of  fine  pasturage. 

OTHER  AGRICULTURAL  PRODUCTS. 
Rice  comes  third  among  the  agricultural  products 
of  Hawaii,  there  being  over  8000  acres  devoted  to  this 
grain,  of  which  two-thirds  are  in  Oahu.    This  culture 


3IO  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

gives  constant  employment  to  about  2500  persons, 
while  1500  more  are  employed  during  the  harvesting 
season.  The  annual  product  of  rice  paddy  is  about 
18,000  tons,  yielding  when  milled  about  12,000  tons 
or  240,000  bags  of  rice,  three-fourths  of  which  are 
needed  for  home  consumption.  The  rice  is  raised  from 
Carolina  seed  and  is  of  excellent  quality. 

Most  of  the  rice  land  yields  two  crops  a  year,  each 
crop  averaging  a  ton  and  a  half  per  acre.  The  land  is 
carefully  levelled,  and  terraced  so  that  it  may  be 
flooded  with  w'ater,  with  which  it  is  covered  to  a  depth 
of  from  half  an  inch  to  three  inches.  Before  harvest- 
ing, the  water  is  drawn  ofif  and  the  ground  allowed 
to  dry. 

This  is  an  industry  with  which  the  Chinese  and 
Japanese  are  thoroughly  familiar,  rice  cultivation 
being  the  form  of  agriculture  to  w-hich  they  are  spe- 
cially accustomed  at  home.  As  a  result,  as  has  been 
already  stated,  the  Chinese  have  taken  very  kindly  to 
the  raising  of  rice,  and  many  waste  regions  of  swamp 
land  have  been  converted  by  them  into  prolific  food- 
bearing  fields. 

Next  in  importance  among  the  commercial  agricul- 
tural products  of  Hawaii  is  the  banana,  to  which  many 
large  plantations  are  devoted.  In  1894,  there  were 
exported  123,000  bunches  of  this  fruit;  though  the 
distance  of  foreign  markets  stands  in  the  way  of  an 
active  development  of  this  industry.  It  is  said  that  an 
acre  of  favorably  situated  land  will  grow  a  thousand 
banana  plants,  yielding  annually  ten  tons  of  fruit.  The 
sweet  potato,  another  of  the  leading  food  products, 
flourishes  on  surfaces  of  lava  which  are  almost  desti- 
tute of  soil,  and  can  be  counted  on  to  yield,  in  good 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  311 

locations,  about  200  barrels  to  the  acre.  As  for  its 
humble  associate,  the  white  potato,  of  foreign  intro- 
duction, it  will  grow  anywhere,  demanding  no  care 
and  attention  beyond  that  of  planting.  Of  the  ubiqui- 
tous taro,  the  basis  of  the  indispensable  poi,  it  is  said 
that  forty  square  feet  of  land  will  supply  the  food  of 
one  man  for  a  year,  and  that  a  square  mile  in  taro  will 
support  15,000  Hawaiians. 

The  indigo  plant  grows  so  freely  that  it  has  become 
a  troublesome  and  ineradicable  weed,  sharing  this  evil 
characteristic  with  the  lantana  and  the  guava.  It 
does  not  repay  the  trouble  it  causes,  since  the  indigo 
yielded  by  it  is  of  inferior  quality.  The  root  of  Tacca 
pinnatifida  yields  a  Polynesian  variety  of  arrow-root, 
and  from  the  crown  of  tree-fern  stems  of  the  genus 
Cibothim  is  obtained  a  soft,  silky  fibre  known  as  pulu, 
which  is  exported  4n  large  quantities  to  the  United 
States  as  a  material  for  filling  cushions. 

Numerous  foreign  fruit  and  other  plants  have  been 
introduced,  among  which  are  cofTee,  tobacco,  cotton, 
wheat,  maize,  potato,  cacao,  grape,  orange,  citron, 
melon,  fig,  pineapple,  guava,  tamarind,  and  such  gar- 
den vegetables  as  the  cucumber,  bean,  onion,  cabbage, 
pea,  carrot,  turnip,  asparagus,  lettuce,  celery,  etc., 
which  are  grown  in  the  vegetable  gardens  of  the 
Chinese.  In  fact,  in  the  uplands  all  the  products  of 
the  temperate  zones  can  be  grown. 

Several  of  these  exotic  plants  have  proved  excel- 
lently adapted  to  the  soil  and  of  much  economic  value. 
Wheat  and  potatoes  thrive  on  the  uplands  of  Maui. 
Tobacco  grows  freely,  though  its  leaf  is  of  inferior 
quality.  Oranges  of  fine  quality  are  raised,  and  in 
some  districts  the  pineapple  grows  like  a  weed,  yield- 


312  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

ing  large  fruit,  though  not  of  fine  quahty.  The  water- 
melon is  so  prolific  that  it  is  almost  a  drug  in  the 
market.  The  bamboo  has  been  known  to  grow  six- 
teen inches  in  a  clay.  Most  of  the  vegetable  drugs, 
dyes,  and  spices  can  be  raised,  and  the  ramie  fibre 
plant  grows  luxuriantly,  also  the  Sisal  hemp.  Only 
sufficient  rainfall  is  needed  to  make  the  soil  teem 
with  plenty. 

The  Hawaiian  forests  yield  many  plants  of  industrial 
value.  Allusion  has  already  been  made  to  the  ohia, 
the  ti,  and  the  wauti  trees,  the  widely  distributed  cocoa- 
nut,  and  the  koa  tree,  which  yields  a  beautiful  wood 
suitable  for  cabinet-work.  There  are  other  valuable 
hard-woods,  and  the  forests  may  yet  become  a  fertile 
source  of  revenue.  Building  lumber  is  transported 
down  the  mountains  in  difficult  localities  on  the  backs 
of  strong,  sure-footed  mules,  two  of  which,  going 
tandem,  can  carry  a  log  on  each  side,  weighing  to- 
gether 400  pounds  or  more,  along  narrow  paths  and 
down  perilous  steeps  which  seem  dangerous  to  human 
feet.  No  vehicle  could  traverse  these  difficult  paths, 
and  only  by  the  aid  of  these  faithful  animals  could  the 
lumber  of  the  lofty  uplands  be  brought  into  use.  The 
irrigation  flumes,  as  already  stated,  serve  a  similar 

purpose. 

GRAZING  INDUSTRIES. 

The  native  pig,  and  the  ox,  horse,  sheep,  goat,  and 
dog  (the  native  dog  has  become  extinct),  introduced 
forms,  constitute  the  principal  large  animals  of  the 
group,  and  have  increased  so  abundantly  that  large 
numbers  of  them  exist  in  a  state  of  almost  pristine 
wildness  in  the  uninhabited  mountain  and  forest  re- 
gions.    The  wild  boar  is  hunted,  while  the  wild  bull 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  313 

hunts  man,  and  occasionally  with  serious  results.  In 
certain  localities  groups  of  wild  dogs  are  encountered, 
almost  as  fierce  as  wolves  if  pressed  by  hunger.  Wild 
goats  find  themselves  at  home  on  the  high  mountains, 
and  the  horse  has  so  increased  that  in  its  semi-wild 
state  it  does  considerable  damage  to  the  woods  and 
plantations.  The  native  is  poor  indeed  who  does  not 
own  a  horse,  and  most  of  them  lay  claim  to  two  or  three. 
The  wild  cattle  of  the  mountains,  a  very  inferior  breed, 
are  shot  or  lassoed  for  the  sake  of  their  hides,  of  which 
large  numbers  are  exported,  a  single  island  having 
yielded  as  many  as  11,000  hides  in  a  year.  Formerly 
the  natives  trapped  them  by  digging  pits  near  pools  of 
water,  a  practice  which  proved  fatal  to  Douglas,  the 
botanist,  who  fell  into  one  of  these  pools  and  was 
gored  to  death  by  a  bull. 

The  raisers  of  sheep  are  few  in  number,  but  some 
of  them  own  large  flocks,  and  the  wool  clip  is  con- 
siderable. The  island  of  Niihau,  for  instance,  the 
greater  part  of  which  is  a  low,  grass-covered  plain,  is 
mainly  used  for  sheep-grazing.  The  Gays  and  Robin- 
sons, owners  of  the  island,  have  30,000  sheep,  whose 
wool  is  not  surpassed  by  the  best  Australian  clip.  The 
island  is  inhabited  only  by  their  employees.  The  same 
is  the  case  with  the  island  of  Lanai,  west  of  Maui,  a 
region  of  little  fertility  and  devoted  to  sheep-raising, 
the  shepherds  being  its  only  inhabitants. 

The  extensive  grazing  lands  on  the  other  islands  are 
largely  used  for  cattle,  of  which  great  herds  are  kept, 
under  the  control  of  the  native  cowboys,  the  Hawaiian 
wild  riders,  than  whom  there  are  none  more  daring 
or  more  skilled  in  the  use  of  the  lasso.  The  Kanaka 
herdsman  is  proud  of  his  accomplishments,  and  has 


314  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

adopted  the  broad-brimmed  sombrero  and  the  loud 
jingHng  spurs  of  his  Mexican  counterpart,  in  which 
brave  attire  he  deHghts  to  swagger  through  the  city 
streets,  to  the  admiration  of  the  boys. 

It  is  well  to  say,  in  conclusion  of  this  section  of  our 
subject,  that  the  character  of  the  utilization  of  Ha- 
waiian soil  is  largely  governed  by  elevation.  It  may 
be  divided  broadly  into  four  zones.  The  sugar  zone 
extends  from  the  sea-level  to  1500  feet  of  elevation, — 
sometimes  higher.  About  half  of  it  needs  some  degree 
of  artificial  irrigation;  the  remainder  is  sufficiently 
watered  by  the  rainfall.  The  coflfee  zone  extends  from 
a  height  of  1500  to  3000  feet.  A  third  zone,  that  of 
fruit  and  vegetables,  largely  overlaps  that  of  coffee, 
though  extending  beyond  it.  The  fourth  and  highest 
zone,  that  devoted  to  grazing,  reaches  from  3000  to 
5000  feet  of  elevation.  As  regards  the  Hawaiian  soil, 
it  varies  from  dark  red  to  light  red  and  yellow  shades 
of  color,  the  dark  red  being  the  most,  the  yellow  the 

least,  fertile. 

BIRD  PRODUCTS. 

The  ostrich  has  been  introduced  into  Hawaii,  and 
promises  well.  In  a  valley  region  of  Kauai,  shut  in  on 
three  sides  by  lofty  hills  and  on  the  fourth  by  the 
ocean,  is  kept  a  group  of  these  great  birds,  the  prop- 
erty of  Mr.  Charles  N.  Cooke,  of  Honolulu.  The 
valley  is  sandy,  and  the  birds  are  as  much  in  their 
native  element  as  on  the  Sahara  desert.  They  are 
carefully  fed,  ground  bones — not  overly  fine — forming 
an  essential  part  of  their  diet.  Their  feathers  are 
plucked  twice  a  year,  the  birds  being  driven  into  a  pen, 
in  which  they  are  securely  fastened  during  the  process. 
Thus  far  Hawaiian  ostrich-farming  is  an  experiment, 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  315 

of  which  the  profits  can  be  told  only  after  a  longer 
interval. 

The  most  interesting  industry  connected  with  birds, 
however,  is  that  of  Leyson  Island,  a  lone  isle  of 
the  Pacific  situated  some  800  miles  west  of  Honolulu, 
yet  now  looked  upon  as  an  outlying  member  of  the 
Hawaiian  group,  its  nearest  neighboring  land.  This 
island,  low-lying  and  apparently  an  uplifted  coral  reef, 
is  of  about  100  square  miles  area,  and  is  the  home  of 
myriads  of  ocean  birds,  including  ducks,  gulls,  boo- 
bies, frigate-birds,  and  various  other  species,  about 
twenty-five  in  all.  So  numerous  are  they  that  they 
darken  the  sun  when  they  take  to  flight,  and  so  tame 
that  they  need  to  be  thrust  aside  in  walking,  and 
can  be  picked  up  by  any  one  who  wishes  to  make  a 
capture.  On  the  railroad  track  which  has  been  laid 
on  the  island,  a  man  has  to  sit  in  front  of  the  car  and 
push  the  birds  with  a  stick  out  of  the  way  of  the  mules, 
while  parties  who  visit  the  island  are  obliged  to  close 
their  doors  or  tent-flaps  closely  at  night  to  keep  out 
the  intrusive  winged  inhabitants. 

Leyson  Island  is  sought  for  its  guano,  the  product 
of  birds  which  for  ages  past  have  lived  and  died  there 
in  myriads.  Their  decaying  remains  and  the  disinte- 
grated coral  form  a  valuable  fertilizer,  of  which  hun- 
dreds of  tons  are  shipped  annually  to  Hawaii  and  the 
Pacific  coast.  In  addition  to  the  guano,  the  eggs  are 
frequently  gathered,  cars  being  filled  with  them  and 
vessels  loaded.  But  the  distance  to  which  they  have 
to  be  carried  renders  this  industry  unprofitable. 

At  one  time  an  efifort  was  made  to  utilize  the  island 
for  the  raising  of  swine.  A  number  of  hogs  were 
placed  on  it,  and  increased  so  rapidly  that  the  experi- 


3i6  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

ment  promised  to  be  a  success.  But  the  hog-raiser 
had  not  counted  upon  the  buccaneers  of  the  Pacific. 
Captain  Pease,  a  noted  pirate  of  those  waters,  being 
short  of  meat,  swooped  down  on  the  island  one  day, 
during  the  absence  of  the  manager  and  his  aids  and 
assistants,  killed  the  hogs,  salted  down  the  pork,  and 
sailed  away  with  it  in  his  vessel's  hold.  Since  then  the 
piratical  captain  has  met  with  a  violent  death ;  but  the 
hogs  have  not  been  replaced,  and  the  island  is  left  to 
its  native  inhabitants,  the  birds. 


VIII.  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 

MECHANICAL  INDUSTRIES. 

Of  the  manufacturing  establishments  of  Hawaii 
there  is  only  one  to  which  special  attention  need  be 
given.  This  is  the  Honolulu  Iron-Works,  which  owes 
its  prosperity  to  the  development  of  the  sugar  in- 
dustry, consequent  upon  the  reciprocity  treaty  of 
1876  between  Hawaii  and  the  United  States.  The 
steady  and  increasing  demands  of  the  planters  for  im- 
proved machinery  gave  a  vigorous  impetus  to  this 
establishment,  which  has  grown  in  dimensions  and 
facilities  and  in  the  number  of  its  employees  until  its 
pay-roll  is  said  to  amount  to  $5000  per  week. 

It  has  to  import  all  its  coal  and  iron,  which  puts  it 
at  a  disadvantage  in  competition  with  iron-works  on 
the  continent;  but  it  has  the  advantage  of  being  on 
the  ground  and  in  position  to  supply  machinery  at 
short  notice,  which  could  not  be  got  elsewhere  with- 
out considerable  delay.  It  possesses  also  the  most 
recent  and  powerful  machine  tools,  and  during  the 
past  ten  years  has  made  more  than  sixty  crushing- 
mills  for  plantations,  with  much  other  sugar-making 
machinery. 

Another  large  enterprise  of  Honolulu  is  the  Ha- 
waiian Electric  and  Cold  Storage  Company,  organized 
in  1892,  and  now  possessing  three  powerful  engines, 

kof  about  1500  horse-power.    It  runs  cars  and  elevators, 
has  cold-storage  and  ice-making  rooms  of  over  too,- 
317 


3i8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

ooo  cubic  feet  capacity,  and  is  capable  of  supplying 
electric  light  to  a  city  twice  the  size  of  Hawaii. 

These  extensive  establishments,  due  to  American 
capital  and  enterprise,  are  the  only  manufacturing  con- 
cerns on  the  islands  to  which  attention  needs  to  be 
called.  There  are,  of  course,  numerous  minor  manu- 
factures, necessary  to  supply  the  island  demand  for 
articles  of  immediate  consumption,  such  as  clothing, 
utensils,  smith-work,  etc.,  but  these  have  given  rise 
to  no  establishment  on  a  large  scale,  and  are  largely 
in  the  hands  of  the  Hawaiians  themselves.  For  in- 
stance, out  of  the  11,135  male  Hawaiians  over  fifteen 
years  of  age,  shown  in  the  last  census,  about  1000,  or 
one  in  eleven,  were  carpenters.  Others  of  them  are 
painters,  blacksmiths,  machinists,  engineers,  etc.,  a 
remarkable  showing  for  a  people  who  had  scarcely 
begun  to  emerge  from  savagery  a  century  ago. 

COMMERCE. 

The  commercial  interests  of  Hawaii  are  large  and 
growing,  the  commerce  being  very  largely  with  the 
United  States,  which  receives  nearly  the  total  sum  of 
exports.  In  1897  the  proportion  sent  to  this  country 
was  99.62  per  cent,  of  the  whole,  of  which  96  per  cent, 
consisted  of  sugar.  Our  proportion  of  the  imports  to 
Hawaii  was  considerably  less,  the  United  States  fur- 
nishing 76.94  per  cent.,  while  11.85  per  cent,  came 
from  Great  Britain  and  her  colonies,  and  the  remain- 
der was  about  equally  divided  between  Germany, 
China,  Japan,  and  other  countries. 

The  chief  articles  of  export,  aside  from  the  over- 
whelming supremacy  of  sugar,  were  hides,  wool,  rice, 
coflfee.   and   fruits,   the  total   value  of  exports   being 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     319 

$16,021,775.  The  imports  amounted  to  $7,682,628, 
showing  a  large  balance  of  trade  in  favor  of  the  islands. 
These  imports  were  largely  in  the  lines  of  provisions, 
clothing,  hardware,  machinery,  and  agricultural  imple- 
ments. The  United  States  has  a  large  proportion  of 
the  trade  in  cotton  goods,  and  a  monopoly  of  that  in 
boots  and  shoes,  felt  hats,  and  the  better  class  of  straw 
hats.  Of  exported  goods,  the  most  marked  increase 
is  in  cofTee,  which  amounted  to  $2628  in  1892,  $25,063 
in  1896,  and  nearly  treble  the  latter  sum  in  1897.  As 
yet  no  large  cofTee  estates  have  been  opened,  the  in- 
dustry being  composed  of  a  number  of  small  holdings, 
in  addition  to  the  wilH,  or  semi-wild,  cofifee  of  the 
island  of  Hawaii.  The  export  of  cofifee  in  1897  was 
337,158  pounds.  Under  present  conditions,  the  com- 
merce of  the  islands  is  likely  to  be  very  largely  in- 
creased, and  the  United  States  to  gain  a  much  larger 
proportion  of  the  import  trade  than  that  now  pos- 
sessed. 

The  leading  articles  sent  from  the  United  States 
consist  of  iron  and  steel,  wooden  wares,  cotton  fabrics, 
fertilizers,  breadstufifs,  drugs  and  chemicals,  boots  and 
shoes,  manufactured  tobacco,  mineral  oil,  fish,  hay, 
wine,  malt  liquors,  hardware,  and  machinery. 

Of  the  Hawaiian  exports  in  1896,  sugar  comprised 
nearly  the  whole,  and  all  of  this,  to  the  value  of  $14,- 
932,000,  came  to  the  United  States.  The  exports  of 
rice  to  this  country  amounted  to  $163,571 ;  of  fruits 
and  nuts,  to  $76,124;  of  hides  and  skins,  to  $65,104; 
smaller  quantities  of  coffee,  wool,  molasses,  and  vari- 
ous other  substances  making  up  the  total  sum.  The 
commerce  of  1898  shows  a  marked  increase  over  that 
of  the  two  years  named,  the  total  value  of  the  exports 


320  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

for  that  year  being  $17,346,744;  that  of  the  imports, 
including  specie,  $11,650,890.  Half  of  this  increase 
was  an  increase  in  imports  from  the  United  vStates. 
The  customs  duties  collected  were  $896,795,  as 
against  $708,493  in  1897. 

SHIPPING. 

The  statistics  of  shipping  for  1897  show  a  good 
ratio  of  increase  over  the  preceding  years,  427  vessels, 
of  513,826  tons,  entering  Hawaiian  ports,  as  against 
386  vessels,  of  447,997  tons,  in  1896.  Of  the  1897 
shipping,  286  vessels,  of  270,045  tons,  were  from  the 
United  States,  141  vessels,  of  243,781  tons,  from 
foreign  ports.  Yet  this  proportion  does  not  give  a 
correct  idea  of  the  actual  situation,  since  the  foreign 
tonnage  includes  the  mail-steamers,  mostly  British,  that 
stop  merely  to  land  the  mails  and  a  few  passengers 
and  that  carry  very  little  freight.  Of  the  427  vessels, 
291,  of  215,262  tons,  were  sailing-vessels,  engaged  in 
freightage,  and  of  these  237,  of  164.406  tons,  were  from 
the  United  States.  The  inter-insular  traffic  in  1896 
employed  59  vessels,  of  29,024  tons,  about  one-third 
of  them  being  steamers,  the  remainder  sailing-vessels. 

The  steamship  lines  plying  between  Honolulu  and 
the  United  States  include  the  Oceanic  Steamship 
Company,  the  Oriental  and  Occidental  Steamship 
Company,  the  Pacific  Mail,  and  the  Oregon  Railway 
and  Navigation  Company,  each  with  four  ships,  and 
the  Japanese  company,  Nippon  Yusen  Kaisha.  with 
two  ships.  Most  of  these  vessels  touch  at  Honolulu  on 
their  way  to  more  distant  ports,  at  times  two  or  three 
steamers  touching  there  weekly,  at  other  times  ten 
or  twelve  days  occurring  between  steamers. 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     321 

FINANCES. 

Until  recently,  the  gold  and  silver  coins  of  all  na- 
tions passed  current  in  Hawaii  at  their  real  or  nominal 
values,  though  the  Mexican  dollar  and  the  French 
five-franc  piece  were  the  leading  coins;  but  since 
December  31,  1894,  only  the  gold  coins  of  the  United 
States  have  been  legal  tender  for  sums  over  ten  dollars, 
Hawaiian  and  American  silver  being  legal  tender  for 
smaller  sums.  Paper  money  is  not  in  use,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  treasury  certificates  representing  deposits 
of  coin.  As  a  result  of  this  state  of  afifairs,  no  change 
in  the  circulation  will  be  necessary  to  produce  con- 
formity to  the  new  political  relations  of  the  country. 
The  silver  of  Hawaii  amounts  to  $1,000,000,  and  the 
whole  circulating  medium  of  the  islands  is  estimated 
at  $3,500,000. 

Hawaii  had  a  national  debt  on  December  31,  1896, 
of  $4,136,174.  Its  revenue  for  1896  amounted  to 
$1,997,818;  expenditures  to  $1,904,191.  The  chief 
sources  of  revenue  were:  customs,  $656,896;  taxes, 
$706,542;  internal  revenue,  $168,384.  The  ruling 
rates  of  interest  range  from  five  to  twelve  per  cent. 

The  revenue  of  the  islands  is  likely  to  increase  con- 
siderably linder  their  new  relations  and  the  growing 
development  of  their  resources,  which  are  as  yet  in 
their  infancy.  Sugar  is  the  only  product  to  which 
much  attention  has  been  paid,  and  in  whose  culture 
capital  has  been  largely  invested.  The  cultivation  of 
cofifee  is  a  rapidly  growing  industry,  and  this  crop  bids 
fair  to  gain  a  large  development  in  the  coming  years. 
Other  products  of  commercial  value  are  likely  to  at- 
tract attention.     A  larsre  area  of  arable  land  remains 


322  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

to  be  utilized;  and  the  early  years  of  the  twentieth 
century  will  doubtless  show  so  considerable  an  in- 
crease of  Hawaiian  production  and  commerce  as  to 
make  this  new  accession  to  the  United  States  one  of 
great  and  growing  value. 


SECTION   IV. 

THE    PHILIPPINE    ISLANDS. 

•  •• 

L  HISTORICAL  SKETCH. 

It  is  now  nearly  400  years  since  Ferdinand  Magel- 
lan, on  his  pioneer  voyage  across  the  waters  of  the 
newly  discovered  Pacific  Ocean,  reached  an  outlying 
member  of  an  extensive  archipelago  to  which  he  gave 
the  name  of  the  St.  Lazarus  Islands.  This  event  took 
place  on  the  12th  of  March,  1521.  Proceeding  to 
Cebu,  a  neighboring  large  island  of  the  group,  he 
gained  such  influence  over  its  ruler  as  to  induce  him 
and  his  court  to  accept  baptism  and  to  acknowledge 
the  supremacy  of  Spain,  to  whose  king  they  took  the 
oath  of  vassalage. 

Magellan,  in  return,  aided  the  ruler  in  a  war  with 
his  neighbors,  an  act  for  which  he  paid  severely,  being 
wounded  in  battle,  and  dying  on  March  25,  1521.  The 
alliance  with  the  Spaniards  soon  came  to  a  violent 
end,  the  natives  finding  reason  to  distrust  their  new 
allies.  The  leading  officers  of  the  expedition  were  in- 
vited to  a  banquet  by  the  Cebu  chief,  and  were  treach- 
erously attacked  during  the  feast  and  all  but  one  of 
them  killed.  The  ships  left  in  haste,  one  of  them, 
the  Vitoria,  reaching  Spain  and  completing  the  first 
circumnavigation  of  the  globe. 

323 


324  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

From  time  to  time  other  expeditions  were  sent  to 
these  far  eastern  waters;  one  of  them,  sent  by  Cortes 
from  Mexico  in  1528,  taking  possession  of  the  La- 
drone  Islands,  the  principal  member  of  which  has 
recently  been  ceded  to  the  United  States.  The  name 
of  Filipinas  was  given  in  1543  by  Villalobos  to  the 
island  now  known  as  Samar,  and  was  applied  to  the 
whole  group  by  Legaspi,  who  conducted  an  expedi- 
tion from  Mexico  in  1564,  under  orders  from  Philip 
II.  to  "conquer,  pacify,  and  people"  this  island  group. 
The  name  "  Islas  Filipinas,"  or  Philippine  Islands, 
given  in  honor  of  Philip  II.,  first  appears  in  a  letter  of 
Legaspi's  of  the  date  of  1567. 

Legaspi,  who  was  appointed  governor  of  Spain's 
new  colony,  made  a  settlement  on  the  island  of  Cebu 
in  1565,  whence  he  removed  to  Luzon  and  founded 
the  city  of  Mamla  in  iSTJy  dying  the  following  year, 
as  the  annals  say,  of  disappointment  and  disgust.  The 
subjugation  of  the  islands  made  considerable  progress 
under  him,  and  he  has  since  been  known  as  the  "  Con- 
queror of  the  Philippines." 

In  truth,  the  true  conquerors  of  the  Philippines  are 
acknowledged  to  have  been  the  Roman  Catholic  mis- 
sionaries, who  made  their  way  fearlessly  among  the 
natives,  converted  them  widely  to  Christianity,  and 
rgained  such  an  influence  over  them  as  to  keep  them 
I  in  subjection  to  Spain  during  most  of  the  time  since. 
-^  "  The  missionaries  were  the  real   conquerors  of  the 
Philippines,"   says  Tomas   de   Comyn;    "their   arms 
were  not,  indeed,  those  of  the  warrior,  but  they  gave 
laws  to  millions,  and,   scattered  though  they  were, 
they  established  by  unity  of  purpose  and  of  action  a 
permanent  empire  over  immense  multitudes  of  men." 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  325 

They  learned  the  language  of  the  natives,  came  into 
intimate  relations  with  them,  and,  by  gaining  an  in- 
fluence over  their  minds,  were  enabled  to  control 
them  through  the  agencies  of  faith  and  superstition. 

The  history  of  the  islands  contains  few  events  of 
special  interest,  being  largely  made  up  of  the  annals 
of  a  long  series  of  governors,  of  contests  with  the 
natives  and  the  Chinese,  and  of  records  of  earth- 
quakes, volcanic  eruptions,  and  devastating  hurricanes. 
A  fleet  of  Chinese  pirates  made  a  descent  upon  Manila 
shortly  after  its  founding,  but  were  repulsed  by  the 
Spanish  garrison  after  a  desperate  assault. 

In  1603  occurred  a  singular  event.  Three  man- 
darins appeared  at  Manila,  bringing  with  them  a 
Chinaman  who  had  assured  their  emperor  that  the 
island  of  Cavite  was  a  mass  of  solid  gold;  a  story  on 
whose  truth  he  pledged  his  life.  The  governor  settled 
the  question  by  conveying  the  envoys  to  Cavite  and 
letting  them  examine  for  themselves.  Soon  after- 
wards a  report  spread  that  a  Chinese  army,  100,000  -n 
strong,  had  been  gathered  for  the  invasion  of  the 
Philippines,  and  hasty  preparations  were  made  for  the 
defence  of  Manila,  a  friendly  Chinaman  named  Eng  — 
Kang  aiding  actively  in  the  work. 

The  peril  was  not  from  the  Chinese  abroad  but  from 
those  at  home.  There  were  numerous  Chinese  set- 
tlers in  Luzon,  and  a  plot,  in  which  Eng  Kang  was 
deeply  involved,  had  been  organized  among  them  to 
massacre  all  the  Spaniards  on  the  vespers  of  St. 
Francis's  day.  The  conspiracy  was  discovered,  and 
after  some  sharp  fighting  the  Chinese  were  repulsed. 
They  were  closely  followed  in  their  retreat,  and  dealt 
with  so  sharply  that  out  of  24,000  in  revolt  only  100 


326  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

were  left  alive,  to  be  sent  to  the  galleys.  Eng  Kang 
was  decapitated  and  his  head  exposed  in  an  iron  cage. 
-  This  disaster  did  not  check  the  Chinese.  Numbers 
of  them  continued  to  seek  the  islands,  and  in  1639 
another  outbreak  took  place,  in  which  30,000  of  these 
immigrants  were  involved.  They  began  a  guerilla 
warfare,  causing  such  devastation  that  the  natives 
joined  the  Spaniards  against  them,  and  they  were 
subdued  with  great  loss.  In  a  subsequent  revolt,  this 
time  on  the  part  of  the  natives,  the  rebels  were  induced 
to  surrender  under  promise  of  pardon.  The  result 
was  one  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  Spanish  colo- 
nial history.  "The  promise  was  not  kept,"  say  the 
annals;  "but  the  leaders  of  the  insurrection  were 
hanged,  and  multitudes  of  the  Indians  sent  to  prison." 

An  event  of  different  character  took  place  in  1645. 
For  two  months  Luzon  was  frightfully  shaken  by 
earthquakes,  during  which  a  mountain  was  overturned 
in  the  province  of  Cagayan  and  a  town  at  its  foot  was 
engulfed.  Torrents  of  mud  and  water  burst  forth  in 
many  places,  and  in  Manila  nearly  all  the  public  build- 
ings were  destroyed  and  300  of  the  inhabitants  lost 
their  lives.  In  the  whole  island  more  than  3000 
perished. 

Under  the  governorship  of  De  Lara,  which  began 
in  1653,  a  series  of  disasters  occurred, — earthquakes, 
tempests,  insurrections,  and  "  a  web  of  anxieties  and 
calamities."  Missionaries  who  were  sent  to  convert 
the  Mohammedans  on  Mindanao  were  put  to  death, 
many  converts  turned  traitors,  and  Keuseng,  a  Chi- 
nese piratical  chief  who  had  conquered  Formosa,  sent 
an  envoy  demanding  the  surrender  of  the  Philippines. 
As  he  had  under  him  1000  junks  and  100,000  men,  his 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  327 

demand  created  general  alarm.  All  the  Chinese  were 
ordered  to  quit  the  country,  and  on  their  refusal  they 
were  attacked  and  nearly  all  of  them  massacred.  Keu- 
seng  failed  to  carry  out  his  threats. 

For  many  years  following  these  events  the  chief 
matters  of  interest  were  the  disputes  between  the  civil 
government  and  the  priests.  The  archbishops  claimed 
the  supremacy  of  ecclesiastical  over  civil  authority, 
and  long-continued  quarrels  ensued,  which  were  not 
all  settled  without  bloodshed.  There  were  similar 
quarrels  between  the  several  religious  bodies,  the 
Dominican  and  the  Augustinian  friars  denying  tTie 
supremacy  of  the  regular  clergy,  and  resisting  the 
admission  of  parochial  curates. 

During  the  period  under  review  the  commerce  of 
the  Philippines  was  strangely  conducted.  It  consisted 
in  the  freight  of  a  single  vessel,  or  galleon,  sailing 
annually  to  and  from  Acapulco,  Mexico,  conveying 
the  produce  of  the  islands  or  goods  received  from 
China,  and  bringing  European  and  Mexican  wares 
in  return.  Absurd  restrictions  were  placed  on  mer- 
chants, who  were  obliged  to  pay  $20,000  for  the 
privilege  of  freighting  this  vessel,  and  none  could 
take  part  who  had  not  resided  several  years  in  the 
islands  and  were  worth  less  than  $8000.  Friars,  offi- 
cials, influential  women,  and  others  took  part  clandes- 
tinely in  the  venture,  and  the  goods  had  to  be  invoiced 
at  very  high  rates  to  cover  the  expected  profits.  If 
they  paid  high  tribute  to  speculators  in  Manila,  they 
did  the  same  in  Mexico,  where  thirty-three  and  one- 
third  per  cent,  was  added  to  the  invoiced  prices.  Simi- 
lar conditions  controlled  the  return  voyage.  The 
galleon  was  allowed  to  bring  back  only  double  the 


328  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

value  of  the  cargo  she  had  taken  out;  but,  in  order  to 
increase  the  profits  of  the  venture,  the  cargo  was  in- 
creased by  invoicing  it  at  prices  below  its  value,  and 
roguery  of  every  kind  prevailed. 

Yet  the  venture  was  not  always  profitable.  Occa- 
sionally the  galleon  was  lost  at  sea,  and  that  year  loss 
and  sorrow  prevailed.  In  some  instances  it  was  taken 
by  the  licensed  freebooters  of  other  nations.  The  gal- 
leons were  four-deckers,  of  1500  tons,  strongly  armed, 
and  commanded  by  ofBcers  of  the  royal  navy;  yet 
they  fell  an  easy  prey  to  the  dashing  British  and  Dutch 
rovers.  Drake  obtained  treasure  worth  $1,000,000 
from  one  capture,  and  a  successful  British  cruiser 
sailed  into  London  harbor  with  damask  sails  and 
silken  rigging  from  its  spoils.  The  Dutch  gave  still 
more  trouble,  their  cruisers  lying  in  wait  ofif  the  coast 
of  Luzon  to  capture  the  Spanish  treasure-ships.  At 
one  time  a  formidable  Dutch  fleet  appeared  off  ^Manila 
Bay,  but  instead  of  besieging  the  town  it  hovered 
about  in  hopes  of  capturing  merchantmen.  In  con- 
sequence, it  was  attacked  and  completely  routed  by 
the  Spanish  fleet. 

There  were  other  troubles  with  the  Dutch,  and  with 
the  English  in  1762,  in  which  year  war  broke  out 
between  England  and  Spain.  The  first  news  of  this 
at  Manila  was  the  appearance  of  a  hostile  British  fleet, 
consisting  of  thirteen  ships  with  6830  troops.  The  city 
was  unprepared  for  defence  and  had  but  a  small  gar- 
rison. The  fleet  appeared  on  September  22,  and 
opened  fire  on  the  night  of  the  23d,  and  the  final 
assault  was  made  on  October  5,  when  the  city  was 
taken  and  given  over  to  plunder  by  the  captors.  In 
addition  to  the  sack  of  the  city,  a  requisition  was  made 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  329 

on  the  authorities  for  a  sum  equal  to  $4,000,000, — a 
war  indemnity  that  was  promised  but  not  paid.  The 
Spanish,  under  the  lead  of  Simon  de  Anda,  kept  under 
arms  in  the  interior,  and  confined  the  British  to  Ma- 
nila. One  result  of  their  resistance  was  a  massacre  of 
the  Chinese,  who  had  conspired  to  assassinate  the 
Spanish  leaders.  Anda  declared  them  all  traitors,  and 
ordered  them  all  to  be  hanged;  the  result  being  that  ' 
thousands  who  knew  nothing  of  the  conspiracy  were 
executed. 

The  British  held  the  city  until  March,  1764,  when  it 
was  evacuated  as  one  of  the  conditions  of  a  treaty  of 
peace,  and  the  authority  of  Spain  was  re-established. 

In  addition  to  the  massacres  of  the  Chinese  named,-^ 
another,  in  which  other  foreigners  were  involved, 
took  place  as  late  as  1820.  Yet  despite  these  acts  of 
slaughter  the  Chinese  continued  to  seek  the  islands, 
in  which  they  now  reside  to  the  number  of  100,000. 
Of  these  some  40,000  are  in  Manila,  where  they  oc- 
cupy the  chief  shops  and  do  most  of  the  artisan  work. 

The  political  history  of  the  country  continued  to  be 
a  series  of  revolts,  fights,  and  executions,  and  of  dis- 
putes between  the  friars  and  the  government;  while 
Spain  derived  so  little  benefit  from  the  islands  that 
their  abandonment  was  contemplated.  De  Mas,  the 
historian,  tells  us,  "  For  more  than  two  centuries  the 
Philippines  had  been  for  the  crown  of  Spain  a  hotbed 
of  so  many  disputes,  anxieties,  and  expenses,  that  the 
abandonment  of  the  colony  was  again  and  again  pro- 
posed by  the  ministers;  but  the  Catholic  monarchs 
could  never  consent  to  the  perdition  of  all  the  souls 
that  had  been  conquered,  and  which  it  was  still  hoped 
to  conquer,  in  these  regions." 


330  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

A  monopoly  of  the  tobacco  crop  was  established 
by  Captain-General  Basco  in  1778,  and  was  main- 
tained for  more  than  a  century,  being  given  up  in 
1882.  In  1785  the  old  system  of  commerce  was 
replaced  by  the  establishment  of  the  "  Company  of 
the  Philippines,"  which  was  granted  a  monopoly  of 
trade,  the  king  of  Spain  having  a  share  in  its  profits. 
This  monopoly  was  sustained  until  1834,  when  the 
increasing  demands  of  foreign  nations  forced  Spain  to 
open  the  country  to  commerce,  though  under  severe 
restrictions.  The  growth  of  steam  navigation  in- 
creased the  trade  of  the  islands,  and  the  opening  of  the 
Suez  Canal,  which  brought  ]\Ianila  within  thirty-two 
days'  steam  traffic  of  Barcelona,  doubled  the  com- 
merce, which  had  reached  by  the  close  of  the  Spanish 
period  an  annual  total  of  $30,000,000. 

Revolts  of  the  natives  have  taken  place  from  time 
to  time,  those  of  the  nineteenth  century  occurring  in 
1823,  1827,  1844,  and  1872.  The  greatest  and  most 
persistent  of  them  was  that  which  began  in  1896.  In 
this  severe  outbreak,  which  continued  until  near  the 
end  of  1897,  the  hatred  of  the  natives  seemed  espe- 
cially directed  towards  the  friars,  whom  they  looked 
upon  as  their  chief  enemies,  and  treated  with  brutal 
cruelty  when  they  fell  into  their  hands. 

Spain  sought  to  put  down  the  insurrection  in  the 
manner  she  has  elsewhere  employed,  by  cruel  treat- 
ment and  wholesale  execution  of  her  prisoners  of  war, 
who  were  publicly  shot  under  circumstances  of  re- 
volting barbarity.  Finding  that  they  could  not  be 
subdued  by  force  of  arms,  the  Spanish  authorities 
treated  with  the  leaders,  offering  a  large  sum  of  money 
to  Aguinaldo  and  his  fellow-generals,  and  promising 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  331 

an  extensive  system  of  reforms.  As  usual  with  Spain, 
the  bargain  was  not  kept.  Aguinaldo  and  some  others 
retired  to  Hong-Kong  with  their  share  of  the  subsidy. 
The  leaders  who  remained  in  the  islands,  trusting  to 
Spanish  faith,  were  seized  and  executed.  The  prom- 
ised reforms  were  ignored,  the  governor  denying  that 
he  had  pledged  himself.  As  a  result  of  this  lack  of 
honesty  the  rebels  were  soon  again  in  arms;  their 
anger  being  particularly  directed  against  the  friars,  to 
whose  influence  they  ascribed  the  dishonesty  of  the 
Spanish  authorities. 

In  1898  came  the  most  important  event  in  the  his- 
tory of  the  Philippine  Islands,  the  capture  of  Manila 
by  an  American  fleet  and  army  and  the  cession  of  the 
entire  group  by  treaty  to  the  United  States.  The  de- 
tails of  this  event  cannot  be  given  in  this  brief  sketch, 
and  are  too  familiar  to  readers  to  need  description. 
It  will  suffice  to  say  that  an  American  squadron  under 
Admiral  Dewey  appeared  in  Manila  harbor  in  the 
night  of  April  30,  and  on  May  i  attacked  and  de- 
stroyed the  Spanish  fleet.  The  city  was  blockaded 
until  August  13,  when  an  assault  was  made  by  the 
army  and  fleet  and  it  fell  into  the  hands  of  the 
American  forces. 

Meanwhile,  on  May  24,  Aguinaldo  and  his  fellow- 
leaders  returned  from  Hong-Kong  on  an  American 
war-vessel  and  put  themselves  at  the  head  of  the  rebel 
forces,  who  immediately  invested  and  besieged  Ma- 
nila. Their  assaults  continued  until  the  capture  of 
the  city  by  the  Americans,  and  they  remained  under 
arms  during  the  subsequent  period  of  negotiations  be- 
tween the  United  States  and  Spain. 

In  the  treaty  of  peace,  signed  December  10,  1898, 


332     .  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  whole  group  of  the  Philippine  Islands  was  ceded 
by  Spain  to  the  United  States,  which  country  agreed 
to  pay  Spain  the  sum  of  $20,000,000  as  a  recompense 
for  improvements  made  in  the  islands.  The  natives, 
however,  continued  in  arms,  under  the  leadership  of 
Aguinaldo,  with  the  claim  that  they  had  fought  for 
freedom,  not  for  a  new  master,  and  a  demand  for  in- 
dependence. The  proclamation  of  President  McKin- 
ley,  under  date  of  December  30,  1898,  offered  the 
natives  home  rule  in  the  fullest  sense,  giving  them  a 
voice  in  the  local  government,  the  right  to  hold  offi- 
cial positions,  a  fair  judiciary,  and  freedom  of  speech 
and  of  the  press;  all  this  under  the  supreme  direction 
of  the  United  States. 

These  concessions  were  not  satisfactory  to  the  Phi- 
lippine leaders;  and,  as  the  debate  in  the  United  States 
Senate  concerning  the  treaty  promised  to  end  in  its 
ratification,  Aguinaldo  grew  openly  hostile,  and  finally 
issued  a  declaration  of  war  against  the  United  States, 
and  made  an  attack  upon  the  American  outposts  at 
Manila  on  the  evening  of  February  4,  1899.  Fighting 
continued  during  the  5th  and  6th,  the  result  being  a 
defeat  of  the  native  forces,  which  were  driven  back 
for  miles  and  suffered  severe  loss.  They  continued 
in  arms,  however,  and  on  February  22,  and  subse- 
quently, an  eflfort  w'as  made  to  burn  the  city,  which 
was  set  on  fire  at  various  points.  About  the  same 
time  two  important  islands,  Negros  and  Cebu,  sub- 
mitted to  the  authority  of  the  United  States. 

Meanwhile,  on  February  6,  the  treaty  of  peace  was 
ratified  in  the  Senate  of  the  United  States,  and  this 
country  succeeded  Spain  as  the  ruling  power  in  the 
Philippines.     Great  diversity  of  opinion  continued  to 


HISTORICAL  SKETCH.  333 

exist,  however,  as  to  whether  these  islands  should  be 
held  permanently  or  only  until  their  inhabitants  should 
prove  themselves  capable  of  self-government.  This 
question  remains  an  open  one,  and  military  rule  will 
be  maintained  in  the  islands  until  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  shall  be  matured. 


II.  PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS. 

GEOGRAPHY. 

The  Philippine  Islands,  or  the  PhiUppines  as  they 
are  usually  called  (Spanish,  Islas  Filipinas),  form  an 
extensive  group  or  archipelago  lying  off  the  southeast 
coast  of  Asia,  and  separated  by  the  China  Sea  from 
China  on  the  northwest  and  Indo-China  on  the  west, 
the  port  of  Manila  being  about  630  miles  from  that  of 
Hong-Kong.  On  the  east  extends  a  broad*  stretch  of 
the  Pacific;  on  the  north  a  number  of  small  islands 
reach  out  towards  Formosa ;  and  on  the  south  lies  the 
great  island  of  Borneo,  with  which  the  Philippines 
have  two  lines  of  connection, — a  western  one  by  the 
islands  of  Palawan  and  Balabac  and  an  eastern  one 
by  way  of  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  To  the  south  lie  two 
deep  ocean  abysses,  the  Sulu  or  Mindoro  Sea,  extend- 
ing to  North  Borneo,  and  the  Celebes  Sea,  lying  be- 
tween Mindanao  and  Celebes,  with  a  width  of  300 
miles.  The  Sulu  Islands  are  practically  a  part  of  the 
group,  and  were  included  in  the  cession  by  Spain  to 
the  United  States.  The  archipelago,  thus  constituted, 
extends  from  4°  45'  to  21°  north  latitude,  and  between 
116°  40'  and  126°  30'  east  longitude,  or  through  a 
length,  north  and  south,  of  over  1050  miles,  and  a 
width,  east  and  west,  of  approximately  706  miles. 

The  total  number  of  islands  in.  the  group  is  un- 
known. They  have  never  been  counted,  and  the  esti- 
mates as  to  their  number  range  all  the  way  from  600 
334 


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PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  335 

to  2000.  The  actual  number  does  not  probably  ex- 
ceed 1200,  if  every  barren  rock  be  included.  The  land 
area  is  similarly  unsettled,  a  mean  between  the  various 
estimates  being  about  115,000  square  miles.  Numer- 
ous as  the  islands  are,  the  great  majority  are  unim- 
portant in  size,  many  being  of  minute  area,  mere 
rocks  or  sand-spits,  while  very  few  are  of  sufficient 
extent  to  have  any  geographical  or  political  impor- 
tance. There  are  several  hundred  large  enough  to  be 
habitable. 

The  largest  two  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  .respec- 
tively the  farthest  north  and  the  farthest  south,  are 
Luzon  and  Mindanao, — the  former  of  40,885,  the  lat- 
ter of  37,256  square  miles  area.  Between  these  two 
lies  a  group  known  as  the  Visayas,  and  embracing  a 
number  of  islands  of  considerable  size  and  importance, 
the  largest  of  which  are  Samar  (5300  square  miles), 
Leyte  (3090  square  miles),  Bohol  (925  square  miles), 
Cebu  (1650  square  miles),  Negros  (2300  square  miles), 
and  Panay  (4600  square  miles).  This  group  includes 
in  addition  several  smaller  islands  of  some  agricultural 
importance. 

North  of  the  Visayas,  near  Luzon,  lies  Masbate 
(13 1 5  square  miles),  and  farther  east  the  large  but 
little  explored  Mindoro  (4050  square  miles).  The 
smaller  islands  in  these  groups  that  call  for  mention 
are  Guimaras,  215;  Burias,  190;  Ticao,  121;  Tablas, 
327;  and  Sibuyan,  159  square  miles;  while  near  Min- 
doro on  its  eastern  side  is  the  flourishing  island  of 
Marinduque,  348  square  miles.  Two  other  islands  of 
some  importance,  Polillo  and  Catanduanes,  lie  ofif  the 
eastern  coast  of  Luzon. 

Southwest  of  Mindoro  lie  the  Calamianes,  a  great 


336  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

cluster  of  very  small  islands,  of  which  the  two  largest 
are  Calaniian  and  Busuanga  (416  square  miles). 
South  of  these  extends  the  large  island  of  Palawan 
or  Paragua  (4150  square  miles),  which  has  the  dis- 
tinction of  being  one  of  the  narrowest  islands  for  its 
length  in  the  world.  While  extending  230  miles  to 
the  southwest,  it  is  nowhere  more  than  thirty  miles 
wide,  and  narrows  in  some  localities  to  ten  miles.  It 
reaches  to  the  vicinity  of  the  north  cape  of  Borneo, 
from  which  it  is  separated  by  Balabac  and  some 
smallei;  islands  and  Balabac  Strait. 

Between  Palawan  and  Mindanao  and  southwest  of 
the  Visayas  extends  the  deep  Mindoro  Sea,  and  south- 
west of  Mindanao  stretches  the  Sulu  group,  practi- 
cally an  extension  of  its  southwestern  peninsula. 
This  cluster  of  islands,  known  as  the  Sulu  or  Jolo 
Archipelago,  lies  between  the  Mindoro  and  the  Cele- 
bes Seas,  and  extends  nearly  to  the  northeastern  cape 
of  Borneo.  The  group  consists  of  about  150  islands, 
with  a  total  area  of  approximately  948  square  miles, 
the  largest  islands  being  Basilan,  Sulu,  and  Tawi- 
Tawi.  This  group — formerly,  with  a  portion  of  north- 
ern Borneo,  an  independent  state — was  annexed  by 
Spain  in  1878,  and  is  now  classed  wnth  the  Philippines. 
Many  of  the  smaller  islands  are  uninhabited,  but  the 
larger  possess  an  industrious  Mohammedan  popula- 
tion. 

As  compared  in  area  with  American  States,  the 
whole  group  of  the  Philippines  is  of  nearly  the  same 
extent  as  the  New  England  States  with  New  York 
and  New  Jersey.  Luzon,  the  largest  island,  is  of 
nearly  the  same  size  as  Ohio.  The  areas  of  the  prin- 
cipal islands  above  given  are  approximate  only.    They 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  337 

are  so  stated  in  Spanish  ofificial  estimates;  but  the 
true  areas  of  most  of  the  islands  are  far  from  being 
known. 

GEOLOGY. 

An  irregular  mountain  system,  known  in  Luzon  as 
the  Caraballos,  runs  through  the  central  region  of 
each  of  the  larger  islands,  and  the  whole  group  is, 
as  a  general  rule,  mountainous  or  hilly.  Little  more 
than  a  third  of  the  whole  area  is  arable  land.  The 
principal  ranges  extend  in  a  north  and  south  direction, 
with  a  tendency  to  deflect  to  the  east  or  west,  the 
system  spreading  southward  in  a  fan-like  shape  from 
Luzon  as  a  radiating  point.  None  of  the  mountains 
exceeds  9000  feet  in  height,  with  the  exception  of  Apo, 
in  Mindanao,  which  late  observations  indicate  to  be 
over  10,000  feet  high.  The  other  lofty  peaks,  so  far 
as  known,  are  Halcon,  in  Mindoro  (8865  feet),  Mayon, 
in  Luzon  (8900  feet),  Malaspina,  in  Negros  (8192  feet), 
while  several  others  range  from  6000  to  8000  feet. 

Of  Philippine  geology  comparatively  little  is 
known,  and  the  geologist  has  there  a  very  difficult 
task.  As  yet  there  have  been  few  cuttings  or  exca- 
vations to  lay  bare  the  structure  of  the  rocks,  while 
much  of  the  surface  is  covered  with  so  dense  a  vege- 
tation that  there  is  little  from  which  to  draw  conclu- 
sions. There  is  reason  to  believe  that  much  of  the 
archipelago  is  of  recent  date,  having  been  uplifted 
from  below  the  sea-level.  The  evidences  of  this  are 
the  large  tracts  of  coral  reef  seen  at  many  points  along 
the  shores,  and  raised  beaches  of  considerable  eleva- 
tion at  a  distance  inland.  These  contain  shells  like 
those  now  living  in  the  neighboring  waters,  indicating 
that  they  lay  beneath  the  seas  at  no  remote  date.    Ele- 


338  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

vation  and  subsidence  seem  to  be  still  going  on,  and 
the  limestone  caps  that  cover  some  of  the  islands,  as 
Cebu,  indicate  that  the  ocean  once  flowed  where  they 
now  stand.  The  basic  rocks  of  the  islands  appear  to 
be  of  old  formations,  largely  schists,  and  in  the  north 
of  Luzon  granite. 

What  is  now  southern  Luzon  was  probably  in  a 
recent  period  a  group  of  separate  islands,  since  the 
neck  of  land  between  several  of  the  southern  bays  is 
composed  of  alluvium,  tufifs,  and  marls,  in  which 
modern  shells  are  embedded.  Drasche  has  traced  in 
southern  Luzon  gneiss  and  chloritic  slates,  diabases, 
gabbros,  and  eocene  limestones,  with  volcanic  min- 
erals and  the  recent  formations  above  mentioned.  In 
northern  Luzon  he  discovered  gneiss,  diorite,  proto- 
genic  and  chloritic  slates,  and  an  extensive  system 
of  stratified  conglomerates  and  sandstones.  The  more 
modern  rocks  traced  by  him  were  formations  of  vol- 
canic origin,  tufifs  and  tufaceous  sandstones,  banks  of 
limestone,  marl,  and  coral,  and  the  results  of  late  vol- 
canic eruptions,  of  which  there  are  evidences  almost 
ever\^where.  The  coralliferous  limestones — which  pre- 
sent the  unusual  feature  of  stratification — indicate 
their  late  origin  by  the  fact  that  their  corals  belong  to 
genera  which  still  exist  in  the  Indian  Ocean,  and  are 
similar,  though  not  identical,  in  species. 

These  sparse  results  of  geological  observation  are 
likely  to  be  added  to  largely  under  the  new  political 
relations  of  the  islands,  since  scientists  will  doubtless 
find  better  opportunities  for  observation  in  the  engi- 
neering works  which  will  probably  be  undertaken.  A 
considerable  extension  of  the  railroad  system  is  among 
the  probabilities  of  the  near  future,  and  mining  opera- 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  339 

tions  also  promise  to  be  undertaken;  these  offering 
opportunities  to  the  geologist  as  well  as  to  the  prac- 
tical man  of  business. 

VOLCANOES. 

Volcanoes  have  played  an  important  part  in  the  for- 
mation of  the  Philippines,  and  have  left  traces  of  their 
former  activity  in  all  directions.  Most  of  them,  how- 
ever, have  long  been  dead  and  silent,  comparatively 
few  of  the  once  numerous  group  being  now  active. 
Of  these  the  three  of  leading  importance  are  in 
southern  Luzon — Taal,  Bulusan,  and  Mayon  or 
Albay. 

Mayon,  the  largest  and  most  active  of  the  existing 
volcanoes,  is  strikingly  regular  in  form,  presenting 
a  perfect  cone  which  rises  from  a  base  of  about  fifty 
miles  in  circuit  to  a  height  of  8900  feet.  It  forms  one 
of  the  most  prominent  landmarks  visible  from  sea.  A 
constant  smoke,  sometimes  accompanied  by  flame, 
rises  from  its  crater,  and  subterranean  sounds,  often 
heard  at  a  distance  of  many  leagues,  issue  from  its 
depths.  Evidences  of  former  eruptions  cover  the 
whole  country  around. 

In  1767  this  mountain  sent  up  a  cone  of  flame,  with 
a  base  of  forty  feet  diameter,  for  ten  days,  and  poured 
forth  a  wide  stream  of  lava  for  two  months.  A  month 
afterwards  came  from  the  crater  great  floods  of  water, 
which  overflowed  the  river  channels  and  did  wide- 
spread damage.  The  eruption  of  1812  destroyed 
several  towns  and  was  fatal  to  12,000  persons,  forming 
deposits  near  the  mountain  deep  enough  to  bury  the 
tallest  trees.  Similar  disasters  were  occasioned  in 
1867,  and  several  later  eruptions  have  taken  place. 


340  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

In  1876  a  terrible  tropical  storm  burst  upon  the  moun- 
tain, and  the  floods  of  rain,  sweeping  from  its  sides 
the  loose  volcanic  debris,  brought  destruction  to  the 
neighboring  country,  more  than  6000  houses  being 
completely  ruined.  Its  latest  destructive  eruption  took 
place  in  1888. 

Bulusan,  in  the  southern  extremity  of  Luzon,  re- 
sembles Vesuvius  in  shape.  After  a  long  period  of 
inaction  it  began  to  smoke  again  in  1852.  But  the 
most  interesting  of  the  volcanoes  of  Luzon  is  that  of 
Taal,  which  lies  forty-five  miles  almost  due  south  of 
Manila,  and  is  remarkable  as  being  one  of  the  lowest 
volcanoes  in  the  world,  its  height  being  only  850  feet 
above  sea-level.  Another  striking  feature  about  it  is 
its  location  on  a  small  island  in  the  middle  of  a  large 
lake,  known  as  Bombon  or  Bongbong.  There  are 
traditions — doubtful  ones — that  this  lake,  100  square 
miles  in  extent,  was  formed  by  a  terrible  eruption  in 
1700,  by  which  a  lofty  mountain,  8000  or  9000  feet 
high,  was  destroyed.  Evidences  of  great  former  erup- 
tions are  shown  by  vast  deposits  of  porous  tufa  in  the 
surrounding  country. 

The  crater  is  an  immense,  cup-shaped  depression, 
a  mile  or  more  in  diameter  and  about  800  feet  deep. 
When  recently  visited  by  Worcester  it  contained  three 
boiling  lakelets  of  strange-colored  water,  one  of  dirty 
brown  hue,  one  intensely  yellow,  and  one  of  a  brilliant 
emerald  green.  It  is  still  steaming  and  fuming,  and 
in  past  times  occasionally  broke  into  frightful  activity, 
its  three  most  violent  eruptions  being  in  1716,  1749, 
and  1754.  In  the  last-named  year  the  earth  quaked 
with  the  throes  of  the  mountain,  and  vast  quantities 
of  volcanic  dust  were  hurled  into  the  air,  sufficient  to 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  341 

make  it  dark  at  midday  for  many  leagues  around  and 
to  cover  with  dust  and  ashes  the  distant  roofs  of  Ma- 
nila. Fluid  lava  poured  into  the  lake,  which  boiled 
with  the  heat,  while  vast  showers  of  stones  and  ashes 
from  the  crater  fell  into  its  waters. 

There  are  smoking  cones  in  north  Luzon  and  on 
the  Babuyanes  group  to  the  north,  and  extinct  volca- 
noes in  many  localities.  The  other  islands  have  their 
volcanoes.  Negros  possesses  the  active  peak  of  Ma- 
laspina,  and  on  the  island  of  Camiguin,  about  ninety 
miles  to  the  southeast,  a  new  volcano  burst  out  in 
1876.  In  the  large  island  of  Mindanao  there  are  three 
volcanoes,  of  which  Cottabato  was  in  eruption  in  1856, 
and  is  still  active  at  intervals.  Apo,  the  loftiest  of 
them  all,  estimated  to  be  10,312  feet  high,  has  three 
summits,  enclosing  the  great  crater,  which  is  now 
extinct  and  filled  with  water. 

Other  evidences  of  volcanic  activity  are  deposits  of 
sulphur,  which  occurs  abundantly  in  the  island  of 
Leyte,  the  existence  of  hot  springs  in  various  locali- 
ties, and  the  earthquakes  to  which  the  islands  are  sub- 
ject. Of  these  there  are  many  on  record,  the  most 
destructive  one  of  recent  times  being  in  1863,  when 
400  people  were  killed  and  2000  injured,  while  nu- 
merous buildings  were  wrecked.  In  1880  there  was 
great  destruction  of  property  in  Manila  and  elsewhere 
in  Luzon,  though  no  lives  were  lost.  In  1675  an 
earthquake  in  Mindanao  opened  a  passage  to  the  sea, 
and  a  vast  plain  emerged.  These  convulsions  of  the 
earth  affect  the  style  of  buildings,  which  are  rarely 
more  than  two  stories  high  and  are  lightly  built,  trans- 
lucent oyster-shells  being  used  instead  of  glass  in  their 
windows. 


342  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

LUZON. 

It  is  impossible  in  brief  space  to  give  any  extended 
idea  of  the  physical  conformation  of  the  numerous 
islands  of  the  Philippine  group,  and  we  shall  confine 
ourselves  to  a  concise  description  of  the  larger. 
Luzon,  the  largest,  is  composed  of  a  compact  northern 
portion,  about  340  miles  long,  from  whose  southeast 
corner  stretches  an  irregular  peninsula  through  a 
length  of  180  miles,  formed  by  a  series  of  mountain 
ranges.  The  main  trunk  of  the  island  is  abundantly 
mountainous,  the  Caraballos  highlands  being  nearly 
sixty  leagues  in  length  and  sending  two  ranges  north- 
ward, one  skirting  the  eastern  coast,  the  other  keep- 
ing twenty-five  or  thirty  miles  from  the  western.  Be- 
tween these  two  ranges,  known  as  the  Sierra  Oriental 
and  the  Sierra  Occidental,  lies  the  basin  of  the  greatest 
river  system  of  the  Philippines,  the  Rio  Grande  dc 
Cagayan,  which  receives  numerous  affluents  from  the 
mountains  to  east  and  west,  and  waters  a  great  fertile 
valley,  200  miles  long  by  100  miles  wide.  Two  other 
large  rivers,  the  Abra  and  the  Agno,  rise  on  the  west- 
ern slopes  of  the  Sierra  Occidental  and  flow  westward 
to  the  ocean.  Smaller  rivers  and  streams  are  abun- 
dant, the  island  being  well  watered. 

Southwestward  from  the  mountain  system  stretches 
a  broad  extent  of  lowlands,  comparatively  flat  in  sur- 
face, and  forming  one  of  the  richest  agricultural  re- 
gions of  the  archipelago.  It  reaches  southward  to 
the  bay  of  Manila,  and  is  watered  by  the  lower  Agno 
and  its  tributaries  and  the  Rio  Grande  de  Pampanga, 
whose  waters  flow  into  Manila  Bay  by  more  than 
twenty  mouths,  and  serve  a  useful  purpose  in  the  con- 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  343 

veyance  of  agricultural  produce  to  the  capital.  In 
these  lowlands  are  a  number  of  large  lakes. 

West  of  this  flat  country  is  the  coast  range  known 
as  the  Cordillera  de  Zambales,  whose  peaks  reach  a 
height  of  5000  or  6000  feet,  and  whose  northward  ter- 
mination is  in  the  peninsula  which  forms  the  Gulf  of 
Lingayan,  while  its  southern  promontory  helps  to 
make  the  bay  of  Manila. 

East  and  south  of  Manila  Bay  the  country  again  be- 
comes hilly,  and  in  parts  mountainous,  though  much 
of  this  region  is  occupied  by  the  large  body  of  water 
known  as  Laguna  de  Bay,  or  Bay  Lake,  twenty-five 
miles  long  by  twenty-one  wide,  and  350  square  miles 
in  area,  its  outlet  being  the  Pasig  River.  The  depth  of 
this  great  basin  is  rarely  more  than  four  fathoms. 
Lake  Bombon,  from  whose  centre  rises  the  Taal  vol- 
cano, is  fourteen  by  eleven  miles  in  dimensions. 

MINDANAO. 

As  Luzon  practically  bounds  the  group  on  the 
north,  so  does  the  other  large  island  known  as  Min- 
danao or  Maguindanao  on  the  south,  though  a  few 
small  islands  lie  north  of  Luzon  and  the  Sulu  group 
extends  south  of  Mindanao.  This  island  is  extremely 
mountainous,  its  principal  range  being  the  Rangaya 
or  Sugat  Cordillera,  which  runs  from  southeast  to 
northwest,  bisecting  the  island,  and  curves  downward 
into  the  great  peninsula  of  Zamboanga,  a  broad  west- 
ward bend  towards  the  Sulu  Archipelago.  At  its 
eastern  extremity  it  bends  south  to  form  the  peninsula 
of  Butulan. 

There  are  other  ranges,  one  traversing  the  eastern 
side  of  the  island  from  north  to  south.    The  lowlands 


344  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

between  these  ranges  contain  a  number  of  lakes  and 
are  traversed  by  rivers  of  more  extent  and  importance 
than  those  of  Luzon.  The  Rio  Grande  de  Mindanao 
follows  the  valley  between  the  Rangaya  and  the  Tiru- 
ray  ranges,  rising  in  the  north  and  flowing  south  and 
west.  It  is  connected  with  two  great  lakes,  Ligaua- 
san  and  Buluan,  which  practically  become  one  during 
the  rainy  season.  This  stream  is  navigable  as  far  as 
Matingcahuan,  a  distance  of  seventy  or  eighty  miles. 
On  the  north  side  of  the  Rangaya  Mountains  the 
river  Agus  flows  from  the  great  crater-lake  of  Lanao 
to  the  sea.  Associated  with  this  is  a  group  of  small 
crater-lakes,  to  which  the  island  probably  owes  its 
title  of  Maguindanao.  Its  more  common  title,  Min- 
danao, seems  to  have  a  somewhat  similar  origin,  as  it 
signifies  "  man  of  the  lake."  The  largest  river,  the 
Butuan,  or  Agusan,  is  also  connected  with  important 
lakes.  It  rises  in  the  Kinabuhan  Mountains,  within 
a  few  miles  of  the  south  coast,  and  pursues  a  sinuous 
course  northward  through  the  valley  west  of  the 
range,  emptying  into  Butuan  Bay  on  the  north  after 
a  flow  of  more  than  200  miles.  In  its  lower  course 
it  is  navigable  for  craft  of  considerable  size,  but  for 
a  few  miles  only.  There  are  other  valleys  traversed 
by  streams,  as  that  of  the  Cagayan.  The  soil  in  gen- 
eral, and  especially  in  the  river  and  lake  regions,  is 
remarkable  for  its  fertility. 

THE  SMALLER  ISLANDS. 

The  smaller  islands  may  be  more  briefly  described. 
Samar,  the  most  easterly  with  the  exception  of  Min- 
danao, is  separated  from  the  southeastern  cape  of 
Luzon  by  a  channel  ten  miles  wide.     It  is  120  miles 


PHYSICAL   CONDITIONS.  345 

long  by  60  wide,  is  hilly,  but  not  mountainous,  and  is 
well  watered,  possessing  several  rivers  of  some  im- 
portance. It  contains  a  very  large  amount  of  valuable 
timber.  Leyte  lies  southwest  of  Samar,  from  which 
it  is  separated  by  a  narrow  but  extremely  beautiful 
strait.  It  is  100  miles  long  and  30  wide.  Southwest 
of  this  island  lies  Bohol,  a  small  island,  of  compact 
shape;  west  of  which  and  of  Leyte  is  the  important 
island  of  Cebu,  the  seat  of  the  first  settlement  in  the 
Philippines.  It  approaches  Palawan  in  length  and 
narrowness,  being  135  miles  long  while  its  greatest 
width  is  30  miles.  Its  chief  town,  Cebu,  is  the  capital 
of  the  Visayas  group.  This  island  has  no  high  moun- 
tains, though  steep  and  broken  hills  diversify  its  in- 
terior. Its  forests  have  almost  vanished,  but  the 
country  is  difficult  to  traverse,  cultivation  being  easy 
only  along  the  coast. 

The  large  island  of  Negros  lies  west  of  Cebu,  from 
which  it  is  separated  by  a  long  strait  fifteen  miles  in 
width.  It  is  mountainous,  its  highest  peak  being  the 
active  volcano,  Malaspina,  or  Canloon,  8192  feet  high. 
The  mountains  are  richly  clothed  with  forest,  peopled 
by  savage  tribes;  but  the  lowlands  are  highly  fertile. 
and  Negros  is  perhaps  the  richest  of  all  the  islands, 
for  its  size.  It  possesses  a  navigable  river,  the  Danao. 
To  the  northwest  lies  Panay,  the  seat  of  Iloilo,  the 
second  port  of  the  archipelago.  The  forests  of  this 
island,  like  those  of  Cebu,  have  nearly  disappeared, 
and  with  them  the  wild  inhabitants,  though  some  may 
still  exist  in  the  high  mountains  of  the  northwest. 
The  soil  has  considerable  fertility  and  much  sugar  is 
raised. 

Northwest   of   Panay   and   south   of   Luzon,   from 


346  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

which  latter  it  is  but  ten  miles  distant,  lies  the  large 
island  of  Mindoro,  as  yet  but  little  known,  though  the 
Steere  exploring  expedition  recently  made  several 
journeys  into  its  interior.  The  mountains  of  its  cen- 
tral region  contain  a  number  of  high  peaks,  the  loftiest 
being  Mount  Halcon,  8865  feet  high.  Extensive 
grassy  plains  lie  between  the  mountains  and  the  west 
coast,  while  the  eastern  lowlands  are  heavily  timbered 
and  crossed  by  numerous  rivers.  Primeval  forest 
covers  most  of  the  surface,  within  which  dwell  the 
Mangyans,  a  savage  but  peaceful  tribe,  which  the 
members  of  the  Steere  expedition  were  among  the 
first  to  study. 

The  long,  slender  island  of  Palawan,  which,  with 
its  continuing  isles,  fills  most  of  the  interval  between 
Mindoro  and  Borneo,  is  similarly  unexplored.  A 
chain  of  mountains  extends  through  most  of  its 
length,  though  there  is  said  to  be  a  large  plain  in  its 
northern  section.  Its  streams  are  necessarily  short, 
its  average  width  being  but  twenty  miles;  but  there 
are  many  of  them.  Its  woodlands  constitute  its  prin- 
cipal wealth,  it  being  rich  in  valuable  woods,  such  as 
ebony,  logwood,  and  ipil,  a  very  hard  wood  which  can 
be  cut  in  logs  of  great  length.  The  soil,  though 
highly  fertile,  has  as  yet  been  little  cultivated. 

The  smaller  islands  we  may  dismiss  briefly.  Mas- 
bate,  west  of  Samar,  is  mainly  utilized  for  grazing, 
having  extensive  grassy  plains,  on  which  large  herds 
of  cattle  and  numerous  bufifaloes  and  horses  find  pas- 
turage. Marinduque.  a  small  island  east  of  Mindoro, 
is  populous  and  flourishing,  being  largely  devoted  to 
rice  and  the  hemp  plant.  The  islands  of  the  Sulu 
group  have  been  industriously  cultivated,  and  Worces- 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  347 

ter  found  the  forests  of  Sulu  almost  entirely  composed 
of  fruit  trees,  the  old  forest  having  been  cleared  away 
and  these  planted. 

HARBORS. 

Chief  among  the  harbors  of  the  Philippines  is  that 
of  Manila,  whose  magnificent  bay  is  among  the  best 
known  and  most  frequented  of  the  harbors  of  the 
eastern  world.  This  beautiful  body  of  water  is  thirty 
miles  long  and  twenty-five  wide,  having  a  circumfer- 
ence of  about  120  miles.  Manila  lies  near  its  inner  ex- 
tremity. Its  great  expanse  is  injurious  to  it  as  a  har- 
bor of  refuge,  anchorage  being  unsafe  during  a  severe 
storm.  It  is  especially  dangerous  during  the  typhoon 
season,  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  large  ships 
have  been  wrecked  almost  under  the  city  walls.  The 
shoal  water  in  front  of  the  city  prevents  the  near  ap- 
proach of  large  vessels,  which  are  obliged  to  seek 
shelter  at  Cavite,  eight  miles  from  the  mouth  of  the 
Pasig  River.  Vessels  of  fourteen  or  more  feet  draught 
are  obliged  to  lie  out  in  the  bay  and  discharge  part  of 
their  cargo  by  means  of  lighters  before  they  can  enter 
the  Pasig,  along  which  are  the  principal  wharves  and 
warehouses.  The  Pasig  is  usually  crowded  with  small 
vessels.  Manila  is  built  on  low  ground,  its  highest 
point  being  not  many  feet  above  tide-water,  and  is 
divided  into  two  parts  by  the  Pasig,  through  which  the 
waters  of  the  large  lake,  Laguna  de  Bay,  fourteen 
miles  distant,  find  their  way  to  the  bay. 

Of  the  remaining  Philippine  harbors  only  two, 
Iloilo  and  Cebu,  are  of  commercial  importance,  these 
and  Manila  being  the  only  ports  which  have  any 
foreign  trade.  Iloilo,  on  the  southeastern  coast  of 
Panay,  ranks  next  to  Manila,  though  at  a  large  re- 


348  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

move,  in  commercial  importance.  It  is  situated  near 
the  sea-shore,  access  for  small  steamers  being  attained 
by  means  of  a  creek,  which  has  been  deepened  by 
dredging.  The  outer  harbor  is  well  protected  and 
naturally  good;  the  island  of  Guimaras.  which  fronts 
Panay  at  this  point,  forming  a  sheltered  passage,  of 
from  two  to  six  miles  in  breadth,  with  deep  water  and 
good  anchorage.  The  creek  has  five  fathoms  over  its 
entrance  bar,  and  could  readily  be  deepened  within 
by  dredging. 

The  island  of  Panay  possesses  another  harbor  of 
local  importance,  San  Jose  de  Buenavista,  the  port 
of  the  province  of  Antique.  Here  a  breakwater  has 
been  constructed,  and  whaling  and  other  foreign  ves- 
sels have  long  been  in  the  habit  of  calling  for  w^ater 
and  fresh  provisions.  It  has  little  trade,  as  the  sur- 
rounding country  is  thinly  settled  and  undeveloped. 

Cebu  until  recently  surpassed  Iloilo  in  commercial 
importance,  but  has  now  fallen  to  the  third  rank.  It 
lies  on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  the  same  name, 
and  possesses  a  good  harbor,  which  needs,  however, 
to  be  entered  with  caution,  the  channel  leading  to 
it  presenting  difificulties.  The  points  of  danger  are 
buoyed,  and  care  only  is  needed  for  a  safe  entrance. 
The  principal  articles  shipped  from  this  port  are  the 
neighboring  products  of  sugar,  hemp,  tobacco,  and 
sapan-wood. 

The  other  ports  include  Zamboango  on  Mindanao, 
Tacloban  on  Leyte,  Sual  and  Albay  on  Luzon,  and 
some  others  of  little  importance.  These  are  only  con- 
cerned in  the  inter-island  trade.  Zamboango  is  the 
most  southerly  town  of  importance  in  the  group, 
being  seated  at  the  extremity  of  the  long  western 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  349 

peninsula  of  Mindanao,  opposite  the  island  of  Basilan. 
Albay  similarly  lies  near  the  extremity  of  the  penin- 
sula of  Luzon,  at  the  bottom  of  a  deep  bay.  Sual 
is  situated  on  the  southern  shore  of  the  deep  Lingayen 
Gulf,  on  the  middle  west  coast  of  Luzon,  and  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Agno  River,  a  stream  of  considerable 
depth,  but  with  a  bar  at  its  mouth  that  prevents  en- 
trance from  the  sea. 

None  of  these  ports  have  other  than  local  impor- 
tance, though  some  of  them,  such  as  Sual,  have  pos- 
sibilities in  case  of  a  fuller  development  of  the  re- 
sources of  the  islands.  There  are  numerous  bays 
around  the  circuit  of  the  Philippines,  some  of  which, 
in  the  coming  future  of  the  islands,  may  be  utilized 
as  harbors.  Among  these  we  may  mention  Subig 
Bay,  which  was  entered  by  vessels  of  Dewey's  squad- 
ron on  its  way  to  Manila,  in  search  of  the  Spanish 
fleet.  This  bay  is  land-locked,  has  deep  water,  and 
is  considered  by  Admiral  Dewey  the  best  harbor  in 
the  islands  for  coaling  purposes.  In  the  centre  of  the 
north  coast,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cagayan,  is  an  exten- 
sive bay,  guarded  from  the  sea  by  a  small  island  at 
its  mouth,  its  harbor  facilities  being  equal  to  and  safer 
than  those  of  Manila  Bay.  Here  is  the  town  of  Aparri, 
which  in  time  may  become  a  rival  to  Manila,  being 
twenty-four  hours  nearer  Hong-Kong  and  400  miles 
nearer  San  Francisco. 

CLIMATE. 

The  Philippines  extend  through  many  degrees  of 
latitude,  from  near  the  equator  to  the  vicinity  of  the 
tropic  of  Cancer,  and  have  moreover  a  considerable 
diversity  of  altitude,  with  the  result  that  there  are 


350  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

climatic  diflferences  between  separated  regions.  But 
the  characteristics  of  the  cUmate  are  in  general  those 
of  the  tropics,  there  being  little  to  distinguish  it  from 
many  other  places  in  the  Eastern  tropics.  According 
to  a  Spanish  proverb,  there  are  "  Six  months  of  dust, 
six  months  of  mud,  six  months  of  everything;"  indi- 
cating that  though  as  a  general  statement  the  rainy 
season  lasts  one  half  and  the  dry  season  the  other  half 
of  the  year,  there  are  months  of  uncertainty  whether 
drought  or  humidity  will  prevail. 

The  northern  islands  lie  in  the  region  of  the  ty- 
phoons, and  here  three  seasons  are  usually  recognized, 
— a  hot,  a  wet,  and  a  dry.  The  dry  season  begins 
in  November  and  extends  to  February  or  March. 
During  this  period  northerly  winds  prevail,  and  it  is 
sufificiently  cool  to  render  woollen  clothing  comfort- 
able in  the  mornings,  though  it  is  never  cold  and 
there  are  no  sudden  changes  of  temperature.  The 
sky  is  usually  clear  and  the  atmosphere  bracing  in 
this  season,  and  to  Europeans  it  is  much  the  most  en- 
joyable part  of  the  year;  though  there  is  no  season 
in  which  men  can  endure  hard  physical  labor  without 
discomfort  from  the  heat. 

The  hot  season  begins  in  March  and  continues  until 
June;  the  heat  becoming  very  oppressive  during  the 
latter  portion  of  this  period  and  before  it  is  mitigated 
by  the  coming  of  the  southerly  monsoon.  During 
May  and  June  thunder-storms  are  frequent,  and  are 
often  terrific  in  violence, — the  rains  being  severe,  the 
lightning  fierce,  and  the  thunder  deafening.  Many 
lose  their  lives  by  lightning-strokes,  and  houses  are 
frequently  swept  away  by  the  overflowing  torrents. 

The  southwest  monsoon  is  fully  established  by  June, 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  351 

bringing  with  it  the  specifically  rainy  season;  torren- 
tial rains  pouring  down  through  the  months  of  July, 
August,  September,  and  October,  with  such  violence 
that  the  low  country  is  widely  flooded,  rivers  overflow 
their  banks,  the  lakes  extend  enormously,  the  roads 
become  generally  impassable,  and  travelling  grows 
difficult  and  disagreeable.  Even  in  December  the 
effect  of  these  rains  shows  itself  in  roads  so  deep  in 
mud  that  carriages  have  to  be  abandoned  and  palan- 
quin bearers  sink  to  their  thighs  in  mire. 

This  is  the  season  of  the  typhoon,  the  terrific  re- 
volving wind-storm  which  sweeps  all  to  ruin  before  it, 
and  which  is  similar  in  character  to  the  destructive 
tornado  of  our  western  plains.  The  force  of  the  wind 
is  such  as  to  uproot  the  largest  trees,  unroof  or  carry 
away  houses,  and  to  imperil  the  stanchest  ships. 
Vessels  are  occasionally  borne  ashore  by  the  waves 
driven  inward  before  a  typhoon,  and  their  bleaching 
ribs  may  be  seen  at  intervals  in  some  far  inland  paddy- 
field  or  low-lying  farm.  Fortunately  for  the  people 
of  the  southern  islands,  the  typhoon  seldom  occurs 
south  of  9°  or  10°  north  latitude. 

The  close  of  the  southwest  monsoon  is  followed  by 
a  period  of  calms  and  variable  winds,  after  which  the 
northeast  monsoon  sets  in,  with  its  dry  and  bracing 
winds.  The  mountains  afifect  the  seasons, — a  high 
range  delaying  the  wet  season  for  weeks,  while  the 
rains  begin  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the  eastern  islands 
during  the  continuance  of  the  northeast  winds. 

These  characteristics  of  the  climate  apply  especially 
to  the  northern  islands,  the  southern  ones  lying  below 
the  region  of  the  trades  and  displaying  different 
climatic  conditions.     The  heat  varies  considerably  in 


352  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

different  islands,  and  no  one  locality  can  be  taken  as 
typical  of  the  group.  As  the  only  careful  and  con- 
tinuous observations  of  rainfall  and  temperature,  how- 
ever, are  those  made  in  the  Jesuit  observatory  at  Ma- 
nila, we  nmst  content  ourselves  with  the  figures  there 
placed  on  record. 

The  mean  annual  temperature  of  Manila  Is  80°  F., 
the  thermometer  having  a  total  range  of  forty  degrees, 
from  60°  to  100°.  It  rarely  goes  above  the  latter 
figure.  There  is  no  month  in  the  year  in  which  the 
temperature  does  not  reach  as  high  as  90°,  and  the 
mean  of  the  two  coldest  months,  December  and  Janu- 
ary, is  "j'j" .  That  of  the  warmest  month.  May,  is  84°, 
In  the  winter  months  nights  of  reasonable  coolness 
can  be  looked  for;  but  there  is  little  relief  night  or  day 
in  the  hot  season,  the  deep  humidity  which  then  pre- 
vails adding  greatly  to  the  oppressiveness  of  the  tem- 
perature. 

The  average  monthly  rainfall,  as  recorded  from 
1865  to  1896,  is  for  the  wettest  month,  September, 
15.01  inches,  and  nearly  as  much  for  July  and  August. 
It  falls  to  7.47  in  October,  4.92  in  November,  and  con- 
tinues low  until  June,  the  figures  for  February  and 
March  being  respectively  0.47  and  0.65.  The  total 
annual  rainfall  averages  75.43  inches,  the  range  of 
different  years  being  from  120.98  to  33.65.  The 
greatest  monthly  fall  on  record  is  61.43  inches  in  Sep- 
tember, while  the  lowest  record  for  the  same  month 
is  two  inches. 

DISEASES. 

Very  varied  opinions  exist  concerning  the  health- 
fulness    of   the    Philippines    and    the    effect    of    their 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  353 

climatic  conditions  on  white  men,  these  varying  from 
the  "  lovely"  of  one  author  to  the  "deadly"  of  another. 
One  says  that  "  for  a  tropical  climate  that  of  the 
islands  may  be  considered  healthful  for  people  of  the 
white  race;"  another  asserts  that  "the  climate  of  the 
Philippines  is  particularly  severe  and  unhealthy,"  his 
proof  being  that  of  the  Spanish  soldiers  sent  there  in 
1896,  twenty-five  per  cent,  died  of  disease  within  fif- 
teen months. 

Worcester,  who  had  abundant  opportunity  to  judge, 
ascribes  the  examples  of  unhealthfulness  to  impru- 
dence, and  concludes  that  if  one  is  very  careful  in  his 
diet,  drinks  only  wholesome  water,  avoids  excesses, 
does  not  unduly  exert  himself,  and  keeps  out  of  the 
sun  at  midday,  "  he  is  likely  to  remain  well,  always 
supposing  that  he  is  fortunate  enough  to  escape  ma- 
larial infection." 

On  the  other  hand,  the  story  is  told  that  "  About 
eight  years  ago  General-Manager  Higgins,  of  the 
Manila  and  Dagupan  Railway,  having  secured  a  con- 
cession from  the  Spanish  government,  organized  in 
London  a  party  of  about  forty  Englishmen, — civil 
engineers  and  others, — who  were  to  survey  the  route 
and  build  and  afterwards  assist  in  the  operation  and 
management  of  the  railroad.  Mr.  Higgins  gave  spe- 
cial attention  to  the  physical  condition  of  his  assistants, 
selecting  only  men  that  he  believed  could  stand  the 
severe  climate  of  the  archipelago.  To-day  not  more 
than  half  the  members  of  that  party  are  alive." 

Malarial  fevers  are  the  most  constant  dangers  of 
the  foreigner  who  in  any  way  exposes  himself.  Those 
of  milder  form  may  be  easily  shaken  ofif,  if  promptly 
and  vigorously  treated ;  but  the  dreaded  calcntura  per- 

23 


354  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

niciosa  is  a  far  more  dangerous  and  malignant  diease. 
It  is  rapid  and  violent,  running  its  course  in  a  few 
hours,  and  often  ending  in  black  vomit  and  death. 
Fortunately,  it  is  very  local  in  its  occurrence,  and  the 
places  subject  to  it  are  known  and  shunned  as  w^ell  by 
the  natives  as  by  the  whites.  Malaria  also  is  absent 
from  some  islands,  while  others  are  veritable  pest- 
holes. 

The  malarial  trouble  may  be  in  a  measure  capable 
of  remedy.  Sulu,  once  a  fever  centre,  was  made 
healthful  by  General  Arolas,  who,  by  filling  the  low 
places  with  coral  sand  and  improving  the  drainage, 
nearly  put  an  end  to  the  disease.  The  same  was  done 
at  Tataan,  in  Tawi-Tawi,  by  cutting  off  the  neighbor- 
ing forest  growth  and  clearing  up  the  ground.  The 
fever,  previously  very  prevalent,  almost  disappeared. 

But  such  radical  measures  must  be  confined  to  the 
towns,  and  malaria  will  continue  to  prevail  in  the 
country.  So  far  as  the  white  population  is  concerned, 
one  serious  circumstance  is  that  the  climate  is  espe- 
cially severe  on  women  and  children,  a  fact  which 
stands  in  the  way  of  establishing  a  permanent  Ameri- 
can or  European  population.  The  troubles  are  mainly 
malarial  and  digestive,  the  danger  from  epidemic  dis- 
orders being  slight.  Small-pox  is  one  of  the  perma- 
nent diseases,  but  its  spread  is  rarely  rapid,  and  most 
of  the  natives  have  it  in  childhood. 

Cholera  occasionally,  though  rarely,  visits  the  isl- 
ands. When  it  does  come  its  ravages  are  severe,  as 
the  natives  cannot  be  induced  to  take  any  precaution 
against  it.  It  is  the  will  of  God,  they  say.  A  black 
dog  runs  down  the  street  and  the  disease  breaks  out 
behind  him. 


PHYSICAL  CONDITIONS.  355 

Of  the  other  diseases  we  may  name  leprosy,  which 
fortunately  is  not  common,  and  beriberi,  which  pre- 
vails to  some  extent.  The  malignant  bubonic  plague, 
so  fatal  in  India  and  elsewhere  in  the  East,  has  never 
established  itself  in  the  Philippines.  On  the  whole, 
aside  from  malaria,  there  are  no  widely  prevalent  dis- 
eases, and  most  of  the  deleterious  effects  upon  whites 
are  direct  results  of  the  tropical  severity  of  the  climate. 


I 


III.  NATURAL  PRODUCTIONS. 

FOREST  TREES. 

The  Philippines  are  exceptionally  rich  in  forests, 
vast  in  dimensions  and  magnificent  in  aspect,  covering 
immense  regions  of  the  islands,  particularly  in  their 
mountain  sections,  and  containing  an  unusual  variety 
of  valuable  timber  trees.  Forest,  indeed,  is  not  every- 
where found.  Some  of  the  islands,  as  Cebu  and 
Panay,  have  been  nearly  denuded  of  their  trees  by 
agriculturists,  and  this  denudation  is  still  going  on, 
slowly  but  steadily.  The  native  has  no  regard  for 
trees.  If  he  wishes  to  start  a  farm,  he  clears  a  tract 
of  forest  of  the  desired  size,  burns  the  felled  timber, 
and  plants  the  ground.  In  this,  however,  he  is  in  no 
sense  singular,  his  method  being  the  same  as  that 
employed  by  the  pioneer  population  of  the  United 
States.  But  the  Philippine  farmer  has  one  strong 
enemy  to  contend  with,  which  forces  him  to  repeat 
his  process  of  wood  butchery.  There  is  a  strong,  tall 
grass  called  cogon  which  in  time  is  sure  to  invade  his 
farm,  and  which  defies  his  simple  means  of  eradica- 
tion. So  he  abandons  the  farm  to  the  grass,  clears  a 
second  tract  of  woodland,  and  starts  another  planta- 
tion. 

The  cogon  takes  such  strong  hold  that  no  other 

plant  can  compete  with  it;    and  this  vigorous  pest 

seizes  upon   vast  areas,   once  thickly   forested,   now 

known   as   cogonales.     The   plant   is    nearly   useless, 

356 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  357 

though  not  quite  so,  since  it  serves  for  thatch,  and  its 
coarse  stems  are  used  to  some  extent  for  fuel.  In  its 
young  state  it  is  also  used  for  pasturage,  the  natives, 
at  the  end  of  the  dry  season,  setting  the  old  grass  on 
fire,  and  cattle  and  horses  feed  greedily  on  the  fresh 
young  shoots  which  sprout  up  after  the  coming  of  the 
rains. 

The  forests,  as  in  the  tropics  generally,  are  dense 
in  growth,  and  possess  the  usual  number  of  vines, 
lianas,  and  thorns,  so  that  passage  through  them  can 
be  had  only  by  the  constant  use  of  a  heavy  machete. 
Such  paths  as  the  natives  have  made  are  difBcult  to 
traverse  except  by  native  feet.  They  have  been  worn 
smooth  by  much  usage,  and  are  slippery  after  rains, 
a  fact  to  their  detriment  when  they  run  along  the 
trunks  of  fallen  trees,  as  is  often  the  case. 

The  flora  of  the  Philippines  contains  nearly  4500 
species,  belonging  to  1223  genera.  Of  these  fifty 
genera  are  of  ferns,  which  are  very  numerous,  and 
there  are  many  handsome  orchids.  The  wealth  of 
the  forests  in  valuable  woods  is  enormous,  many  of 
the  most  useful  timber  trees  being  scarcely  known 
outside  the  islands.  More  than  200  kinds  of  wood 
have  been  thought  worthy  of  testing  in  the  Manila 
arsenal,  among  which  are  no  less  than  fifty  varieties 
of  hard-wood  lumber,  few  of  which  have  been  offered 
for  sale  abroad.  There  is  a  large  local  use,  but  as  yet 
Japan  and  China  have  been  the  only  considerable 
foreign  users  of  Philippine  timber. 

The  woods  vary  in  color  from  the  jet-black  ebony 
to  the  light-hued  cedar,  and  in  some  cases  are  proof 
against  the  most  destructive  enemies  of  building  tim- 
ber.    Some  of  them  are  specially  valuable  for  under- 


I 


358  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

water  construction,  as  they  resist  the  attacks  of  the 
teredo,  while  others  defy  the  white  ant,  that  most 
annoying  of  tropical  insects. 

Of  the  hard-woods  of  the  Philippine  forests,  the 
best  known  and  most  esteemed  is  the  teak-like  molave, 
called  by  the  natives  "  the  queen  of  woods,"  a  heavy 
brown  timber,  almost  as  hard  as  steel,  and  of  great 
strength.  It  resists  the  action  of  water  for  years,  is 
proof  against  the  attacks  of  the  w^hite  ant,  and  is  used 
for  all  purposes.  Its  firm  surface  permits  of  fine 
carving. 

The  dongon,  another  fine  building  wood,  is  often 
substituted  for  the  molave,  though  not  for  wharfage, 
as  it  does  not  resist  the  teredo.  There  are  two  others 
which,  like  the  molave,  resist  the  white  ant,  the  ipil, 
a  hard,  strong  wood  abounding  in  Luzon,  and  the 
yacal.    Both  of  these  are  much  used  for  building. 

Among  the  other  useful  trees  may  be  named  the 
acre,  an  abundant  timber,  used  for  buildings  and  ship- 
ping; the  antipolo,  whose  light  but  strong  wood  is 
nearly  as  impervious  as  the  molave;  the  bolonguita, 
an  abundant  timber  which  is  used  for  fine  furniture; 
the  calantas  (native  cedar),  found  throughout  the 
islands  and  used  for  canoe-making;  the  beautifully 
veined  and  spotted  camagon,  an  easily  polished  wood 
which  is  used  for  fine  furniture;  the  gut  jo,  an  abun- 
dant wood,  whose  tough  and  elastic  timber  is  much 
esteemed  for  carriage-wheels  and  ship-building;  and 
the  laiian,  abounding  in  the  forests,  and  much  used 
for  canoes.  It  was  formerly  employed  for  the  outside 
planking  of  galleons,  as  its  light,  stringy  wood  did  not 
splinter  under  the  impact  of  cannon-balls. 

Ebony  has  been  found  in  some  quantity,  and  much 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  359 

more  may  exist  in  the  forest  depths.  Two  woods 
somewhat  resembling  it  are  the  mabolo  and  the  mala- 
tapay.  These  are  handsome  woods,  similar  in  char- 
acter,— the  former  black  streaked  with  yellow,  the 
latter  black  striped  with  red,  and  both  useful  for  fine 
furniture.  The  narra  is  a  strong,  hard  wood,  its  color 
from  light  straw  to  deep  red,  used  for  cabinet  pur- 
poses and  susceptible  of  a  high  polish.  The  palo-maria 
yields  a  strong,  knotty,  and  crooked  timber,  very  use- 
ful for  ship  timber.  Another  tree  used  for  ship  timber 
and  building  purposes  is  the  panao  or  halao,  which  also 
yields  a  resin  used  for  lighting  purposes  by  the  na- 
tives and  the  talay  oil,  which  destroys  insects  in  wood. 
The  hansalque,  or  bullet-tree,  yields  a  wood  hard 
enough  to  be  driven  like  a  nail.  It  furnishes  treenails 
for  ship-building  and  makes  splendid  tool  handles. 

The  above  is  far  from  exhausting  the  list  of  useful 
forest  trees,  there  being  numerous  others  which  have 
been  employed  for  various  purposes.  The  list  given, 
however,  includes  the  best  known  and  most  useful,  the 
chief  of  all  being  the  ubiquitous  molave. 

Of  the  native  plants  growing  outside  the  forests, 
the  bamboo  is  the  most  common,  the  most  beautiful, 
and  the  most  useful.  There  are  no  more  charming 
features  of  the  scenery  than  its  graceful  bamboo 
groups,  scattered  profusely  on  hills  and  plains  and 
along  streams,  their  Hght  branches,  waving  in  the 
smallest  breeze,  giving  perpetual  life  to  the  landscape. 
It  supplies  the  native  with  nearly  all  the  materials  for 
his  house,  and  for  sledges,  agricultural  implements, 
bows,  arrows,  bow-strings,  lance-heads,  forks,  spoons, 
cups,  fences,  water-pipes,  musical  instruments,  and  a 
host  of  other  purposes. 


36o  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

Other  very  useful  plants  are  the  canes,  rattans,  and 
other  branches  of  the  calamus  family.  They  grow  to  a 
great  length,  the  bcjuco,  or  bush-rope,  a  rattan,  being 
frequently  300  feet  long.  It  is  said  to  be  found  more 
than  three  times  that  length  in  Mindanao.  These 
plants  are  used  for  ropes  and  cables,  and  when  split 
are  employed  to  tie  together  the  parts  of  house  frames, 
fences,  carts,  canoes,  etc.,  also  for  bed-making,  chair- 
seating,  and  many  other  purposes.  The  fibres  can  be 
divided  into  very  fine  threads,  which  are  woven  into 
delicate  textures,  some  of  which,  as  hats  and  cigar- 
cases,  are  sold  at  very  high  prices. 

The  cocoa  palm,  common  here  as  everywhere  in  the 
tropics,  grows  on  land  too  poor  to  bear  anything  else, 
each  tree  yielding  an  average  of  twenty  nuts  a  month. 
These,  where  water  communication  permits,  are  made 
into  rafts  and  floated  to  market;  otherwise  they  are 
hauled  on  buffalo  sledges.  The  bamboo  itself  is  not 
of  more  use  to  the  natives.  Every  part  of  the  plant  is 
turned  to  account, — trunk,  branches,  leaves,  fruit 
alike.  The  juices  yield  oil,  wine,  and  spirits.  Cables 
are  made  from  the  bark,  which  is  also  used  for  caulk- 
ing. The  trunk  often  forms  the  frame  and  the  leaves 
the  roof  of  the  native  houses.  The  leaf  fibres  are 
woven  into  cloth,  the- fruit  fibres  made  into  brushes. 
The  shell  of  the  fruit  is  made  into  spoons,  cups,  etc., 
the  burnt  shell  used  as  a  black  dye,  the  roasted  root 
as  a  cure  for  dysentery. 

The  nipa  palm  is  little  less  useful  to  the  Philippine 
native.  This  common  plant  grows  abundantly  in 
swampy  places,  and  its  leaves  are  widely  used  for  the 
thatch  and  sides  of  houses.  Its  sap  furnishes  an  in- 
toxicating   drink,    and    strong   alcohol,   of    excellent 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  361 

quality,  is  distilled  from  it.  The  palma  brava  is  much 
vakied  for  the  great  hardness  of  its  outer  wood,  whicfi 
adapts  it  to  pier  building,  it  resisting  water  indefinitely. 
By  removing  the  soft  inner  fibre,  hollow  tubes  of 
large  size,  excellent  for  water-pipes,  are  made. 
Another  palm  highly  esteemed  by  the  natives  is  the 
areca,  yielding  the  betel-nuts  so  much  used  for  chew- 
ing. The  tree  is  a  graceful  one,  which  is  planted 
thickly  in  the  villages,  each  tree  yielding  annually  from 
200  to  800  nuts. 

FRUIT  AND  FOOD  PLANTS. 

Fruits  are  very  abundant  in  the  Philippines,  the 
banana  in  particular.  Of  this  prolific  and  useful  plant 
there  are  said  to  be  more  than  seventy  varieties,  the 
fruit  varying  from  tiny,  pear-like  specimens  to  huge 
examples  a  foot  and  a  half  in  length.  This  every- 
where present  plant  forms  one  of  the  important  arti- 
cles of  food.  •  The  banana  of  the  Philippines,  however, 
does  not,  as  a  rule,  bear  a  high  record  for  flavor;  and 
the  same  is  said  of  the  pineapple  and  the  orange,  the 
native  orange  being  very  poor  and  never  coming  to 
perfection. 

Hardly  any  of  the  tropical  fruits  reaches  here  the 
perfection  attained  elsewhere,  except  the  mango,  in- 
troduced from  the  West  Indies,  which  gains  an  unsur- 
passed flavor  in  Philippine  soil.  The  fame  of  the  Ma- 
nila mango  extends  throughout  the  East.  The  guava, 
similarly  brought  from  the  American  tropics,  has 
spread  from  island  to  island;  birds  greedily  devouring 
the  fruit  and  scattering  the  seeds.  The  cacao-tree, 
imported  from  Mexico  nearly  three  centuries  ago, 
flourishes  here,  and  yields  beans  of  excellent  quality 
in  good  crops. 


362  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Nearly  all  the  Malayan  fruits  are  to  be  met  with,  in- 
cluding the  jack-fruit,  medlar,  lanzan,  and  the  much- 
prized  mangosteen,  which  flourishes  in  the  southern 
islands.  In  the  extreme  south,  especially  in  Sulu  and 
Tawi-Tawi,  is  found  the  famous  durian,  celebrated 
alike  for  its  disgustingly  unpleasant  odor  and  the  deli- 
cious flavor  of  its  fruit.  There  may  be  mentioned  in 
addition  the  papaw,  chico,  lime,  citron,  shaddock, 
bread-fruit,  custard-apple,  and  tamarind. 

The  edible  vegetables,  as  in  the  other  tropical 
islands,  are  largely  composed  of  roots,  some  of  which 
grow^  to  an  enormous  size,  weighing  from  fifty  to 
seventy  pounds.  The  yam  and  the  sweet  potato  are 
widely  grown  and  form  an  important  part  of  the 
native  food-stufTs.  The  ground-nut  is  also  common. 
Potatoes  and  peas  are  grown  to  a  small  extent,  and 
wheat  is  cultivated  in  the  higher  regions.  Maize  is 
raised,  but  does  not  do  well.  Other  food  plants  and 
fruits  include  the  melon,  pumpkin,  onion,  cucumber, 
garlic,  and  various  other  vegetables  brought  from 
Mexico  and  planted  in  the  church  gardens,  whence 
they  have  spread  into  wider  cultivation. 

ANIMAL  LIFE. 
The  largest  native  animal  of  the  Philippines,  and 
the  most  useful,  is  the  carabao,  or  water-bufYalo,  which 
is  found  everywhere,  both  as  the  chief  domestic  animal 
of  the  natives  and  in  the  wild  state,  great  herds  of 
wild  buffaloes  existing  in  the  interior.  The  tamed 
animal  is  the  mainstay  of  the  native  farmer,  being  em- 
ployed in  all  the  labors  of  the  field  and  in  the  transport 
of  commodities,  which  it  either  carries  on  its  back  or 
draws  in  wagons. 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  363 

Muddy  water  or  pure  mud  is  its  delight,  and  it  will 
have  its  share  of  this  whatever  else  goes  wrong.  The 
worst  thing  about  the  buffalo  is  that  it  absolutely  de- 
clines to  work  at  midday  if  the  sun  is  hot.  Its  daily 
mud-bath  is  also  insisted  on,  the  mud  drying  and 
caking  on  its  back  as  an  armor  against  insects.  It  will 
go  where  a  horse  cannot,  but  is  unsafe  to  ride,  for  if 
urged  against  its  inclinations  it  is  likely  to  plunge  into 
the  nearest  mud-bath;  and  if  it  should  see  a  tempting 
slough  it  is  apt  to  dive  into  the  muddy  depths,  regard- 
less of  what  may  be  on  its  back. 

In  its  daily  labors,  however,  the  buffalo  is  tractable, 
and  is  well  treated  by  the  natives,  who  are  obliged  to 
humor  its  peculiarities,  such  as  its  insatiable  appetite 
for  mud.  Another  characteristic  of  this  animal  is  a 
prejudice  against  white  men,  the  scent  of  an  European 
traveller  being  sometimes  sufficient  to  set  all  the  buffa- 
loes in  a  village  on  the  stampede.  This,  of  course, 
applies  to  those  villages  rarely  visited  by  the  whites. 
As  a  work  animal  the  buffalo  is  extremely  slow  in  its 
movements,  and  lacks  the  strength  and  endurance 
which  its  bulk  promises.  But  its  docility  and  patience 
commend  it,  it  being  easily  guided  even  by  a  child. 

In  his  recent  visit  to  Mindoro,  Worcester  was  re- 
galed by  the  natives  with  stories  of  an  extraordinary 
animal  called  by  them  the  timarau,  which  haunted  the 
•  depths  of  the  jungles.  After  considerable  effort,  he  at 
length  found  and  shot  some  specimens  of  this  beast, 
which  proved  to  be  a  small  buffalo  different  in  species 
from  the  domestic  animal  and  exceedingly  shy  and 
alert.  It  is  very  vicious  also,  not  hesitating  to  attack 
the  much  larger  water-buffalo,  which  it  kills.  It  is 
dangerous  for  man  to  approach. 


364  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Cattle  are  raised  in  large  numbers  for  beef  on  some 
of  the  islands,  and  bullocks  are  used  in  the  Visayas 
as  draught  animals.  They  have  run  wild  on  some 
islands,  but  these  do  not  seem  numerous.  The  horse 
is  claimed  to  be  from  Andalusian  stock,  by  way  of 
Mexico,  and  is  a  small  but  very  wiry  animal,  well- 
formed  and  sure-footed,  and  capable  of  carrying  a 
weight  seemingly  out  of  proportion  to  its  size. 

There  are  several  species  of  deer  on  the  archipelago, 
numerous  enough  in  some  places  to  be  hunted  for 
their  meat.  Goats  are  common,  both  their  flesh  and 
their  milk  being  prized.  Every  village  of  the  natives 
has  its  swine,  and  wild  hogs  are  very  abundant,  espe- 
cially so  in  Tawi-Tawi. 

The  native  mammals  of  the  Philippines  are  very 
few,  these  islands  being  not  nearly  so  rich  in  species 
as  the  neighboring  island  of  Borneo.  There  are  no 
large  carnivorous  animals,  the  order  being  principally 
represented  by  a  small  wild  cat,  two  species  of  civet- 
cats,  and  the  binturong.  Of  monkeys,  the  chongo 
(MacacKS  cynomolgus)  is  found  in  all  the  islands,  and  a 
monkey  of  pure  white  color  occurs  in  ^Mindanao.  The 
lemurs  are  represented  by  the  strange  little  Tarsus, 
and  there  are  two  species  of  insectivora  and  several 
rodents,  comprising  some  squirrels,  a  porcupine,  and 
a  few  rats.  The  bats  are  the  most  numerous  in  species, 
there  being  twenty  or  thirty  in  all,  some  of  them  of 
very  large  size.  Enormous  colonies  of  large  fruit-bats 
exist,  which  are  taken  for  their  fur  and  are  sometimes 
eaten  by  the  natives. 

Birds  occur  in  great  abundance,  about  590  species 
being  known.  ]\Iany  of  these  are  rare  and  beautiful. 
They  include  pretty  little  paroquets,  several  peculiar 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  365 

woodpeckers,  and  a  number  of  species  of  pigeons, 
cockatoos,  and  mound  builders.  The  principal  game- 
bird  is  the  jungle-fowl,  which  is  very  common,  and  is 
snared  by  the  natives,  either  to  be  eaten  or  tamed. 
Other  game-birds  include  fruit-pigeons  and  large 
hornbills,  with  snipe,  curlew,  and  other  water-birds. 

One  species  is  of  considerable  commercial  impor- 
tance, the  swift,  which  builds  the  nest  so  much  prized 
by  the  Chinese  as  a  table  delicacy.  When  perfectly 
clean,  these  nests  are  said  to  sometimes  bring  more 
than  their  weight  in  gold.  They  are  made  from  a 
salivary  secretion  of  the  bird,  which  hardens  on  ex- 
posure to  the  air  into  a  substance  resembling  in  ap- 
pearance white  glue.  The  birds  build  in  caves  or  on 
the  faces  of  inaccessible  clififs,  and  those  who  rob 
them  of  their  nests  do  so  at  imminent  risk.  They  are 
found  in  several  of  the  islands,  the  best  being  taken 
on  the  Pefion  de  Coron,  a  very  precipitous  island  in 
the  strait  between  Culion  and  Busuanga. 

Of  the  reptiles,  crocodiles  occur  in  large  numbers 
in  the  lakes  and  streams,  and  are  sometimes  of  great 
size.  They  destroy  a  considerable  number  of  cattle, 
horses,  and  young  buffaloes,  pulling  them  into  the 
water  when  they  come  down  to  drink.  The  natives 
do  not  show  much  fear  of  them,  though  man-eating 
crocodiles  in  Mindanao  prove  frequently  fatal  to  the 
inhabitants. 

Serpents  are  also  numerous,  some  of  the  species 
being  very  venomous.  The  deadly  cobra  occurs  in 
Samar,  Mindanao,  and  the  Calamianes  group,  and  the 
loss  from  snake-bite  is  serious  in  some  localities. 
Most  to  be  dreaded  is  the  terrible  dchenpalay,  whose 
bite  is  almost  instantly  fatal.     It  is  short  and  slender, 


366  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

and  similar  to  a  rice-leaf  in  appearance.  Pythons 
occur,  though  rarely  large.  The  small  ones  are  very 
common,  and  are  dealt  in  as  commercial  objects, 
being  sold  in  the  towns  to  keep  about  houses  as  rat- 
catchers. There  are  many  lizards,  among  them  the 
gecko,  a  disturbing  creature  from  its  noisy  cry.  The 
tortoise  is  of  considerable  importance  to  the  natives, 
who  conceal  themselves  w'hen  the  animals  are  coming 
ashore;  then  run  between  them  and  the  waves,  turn 
over  on  their  backs  as  many  as  they  can,  and  return 
at  leisure  to  remove  them. 

Fresh-water  fish  are  of  minor  importance,  but  the 
ocean  species  are  of  great  variety  and  enormously 
abundant.  There  are  also  great  numbers  of  shell- 
fish, including  many  edible  varieties.  The  pearl  oys- 
ter occurs  near  Sulu,  and  yields  fine  pearls  and 
beautiful  shells;  anotht  '"'oyster  occasionally  yields 
handsome  black  pearls.  The  translucent  shell  which 
is  substituted  for  window-glass  is  obtained  from  still 
another  species.  Some  of  the  mollusks  are  of  enor- 
mous size,  the  taclova  shells,  which  are  used  for  baptis- 
mal fonts,  sometimes  weighing  200  pounds. 

The  usual  variety  and  annoyance  of  tropical  insects 
exist,  among  the  worst  of  them  being  the  locusts, 
which  appear  in  countless  myriads  every  few  years, 
causing  devastation  to  the  growing  crops,  though  the 
natives  obtain  some  recompense  by  frying  and  eating 
the  insects.  There  is  a  large  beetle  which  is  also  eaten, 
and  various  other  insects  and  larvae  are  used  as  food 
by  the  natives. 

Fire-flies  are  abundant  and  brilliant,  and  very  many 
beautiful  butterflies  occur;  while  there  are  three  species 
of  honey-bees,  one  of  them  a  large,  dark-colored  kind 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  367 

which  builds  great  combs  on  the  under  side  of 
branches.  The  honey  and  grubs  are  devoured  by  the 
natives,  and  the  wax  is  of  value  for  candles  used  in 
religious  ceremonies. 

The  most  annoying  of  the  insects  is  the  white  ant, 
a  burrowing  creature  whose  destructive  powers  are 
almost  incredible.  Numerous  stories  of  its  ravages 
are  extant,  one  relating  to  its  inroad  upon  the  robes 
and  other  fabrics  used  in  the  service  of  the  mass.  On 
the  19th  of  March,  1838,  the  garments,  ornaments, 
etc.,  after  use  in  a  certain  church,  were  placed  in  a 
trunk  made  of  narra  wood;  and  on  the  following  day, 
some  dirt  being  seen  near  the  trunk,  it  was  opened 
and  examined.  Every  fragment  of  the  vestments  had 
disappeared  or  been  reduced  to  dust,  except  the  gold 
and  silver  lace,  yet  not  an  ant  was  to  be  found  any- 
where in  the  church,  nor  a»  "'■  :-vestige  of  their  presence. 
Some  days  afterwards  it  was  discovered  that  they  had 
eaten  a  passage  through  a  beam  six  inches  thick. 

METALS. 

Up  to  the  present  time  the  mineral  wealth  of  the 
Philippines  remains  in  large  measure  undeveloped,  no 
systematic  workings  or  explorations  having  been 
made.  From  time  to  time  spasmodic  activity  has  been 
shown,  but  nearly  every  attempt  has  ended  in  failure, 
due  principally  to  lack  of  capital,  and,  secondarily,  to 
insufficient  means  of  transportation  and  difficulty  in 
procuring  labor.  Of  late  years  more  energy  in  this 
direction  has  been  shown,  the  work  of  exploration 
having  been  assumed  by  a  British  corporation  known 
as  "  The  Philippines  Mineral  Syndicate,  Limited," 
which  has  gone  systematically  to  work  and  gained 


368  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

some  new  information  concerning  the  mineral  re- 
sources of  the  islands.  Of  the  great  number  of  islands, 
only  about  a  score  arc  known  to  contain  deposits  of 
valuable  minerals,  these  including  most  of  the  large 
islands  and  a  number  of  the  smaller  ones. 

As  regards  gold,  greatly  varied  opinions  have  been 
expressed  by  diflferent  authorities,  some  holding  that 
the  Philippines  are  rich  in  this  precious  metal  and 
only  await  active  mining  on  scientific  principles  to 
yield  it  in  large  quantities,  others  doubting  the  rich- 
ness of  the  deposits  and  believing  that  the  placer-work- 
ings were  never  of  much  value  and  have  been  largely 
exhausted.  The  metal  was  known  to  exist  long  before 
the  Spanish  period,  and  was  mined  by  the  natives  in 
the  primitive  and  irregular  method  which  they  still 
pursue,  a  rude  and  wasteful  fashion  in  which  they 
are  apt  to  lose  more  than  they  gather.  They  have 
no  means  of  blasting,  lacking  powder  and  dynaniite, 
and  are  ignorant  of  the  process  of  amalgamation, 
while  the  value  of  pyritic  ores  is  unknown  to  them. 

In  consequence,  only  rich  deposits  are  worked,  the 
gold  of  the  alluvial  beds  being  obtained  by  the  use  of 
wash-boards  and  flat  wooden  bowls,  in  which  all  the 
float-gold  is  lost.  The  natives  work  some  of  the 
richer  quartz  veins,  the  gold-bearing  rock  being 
crushed  with  hammers  or  ground  under  heavy  stone 
rollers  turned  by  buffaloes,  and  then  washed  to  obtain 
the  gold.  Their  ignorance  of  amalgamation  neces- 
sarily causes  much  of  it  to  be  lost.  The  idea  of  pump- 
ing out  the  shafts  has  not  developed,  the  water  being 
bailed  out  with  small  water-buckets,  which  lines  of 
workmen  pass  from  hand  to  hand.  Even  in  this  primi- 
tive and  wasteful  way  the  natives  obtain  enough  gold 


NATURAL   PRODUCTIONS.  369 

to  pay  them  for  their  labor.  Nearly  all  the  mountain 
people  of  Luzon  traffic  in  gold,  whidi  is  probably  ob- 
tained from  quartz  veins  in  the  mountain  region.  The 
alluvial  deposits  in  this  island  have  been  prospected 
by  the  syndicate  above  named,  and  have  yielded  indi- 
cations of  being  rich  and  extensive. 

Gold  is  not  confined  to  Luzon.  It  has  been  found 
in  Mindanao,  Mindoro,  Panay,  Cebu,  and  the  smaller 
islands  of  Samar,  Catanduanes,  Sibuyan,  Bohol,  and 
Panaon.  Old  placer  workings  exist  in  Cebu  and 
Mindanao,  and  rich  quartz  veins  are  known  to  occur 
in  the  latter  island.  Panaon  possesses  at  least  one 
such  vein.  As  for  Mindoro,  its  name  is  said  to  come 
from  niina  de  ora  (gold  mine),  and  the  natives  speak 
freely  of  places  in  the  interior  which  are  rich  in  gold. 
In  the  interior  of  Mindanao  gold-dust  is  the  instru- 
ment of  exchange,  it  being  carried  about  in  bags  for 
use  in  the  ordinary  purposes  of  life.  The  Misamis 
gold  placers  in  this  island  are  the  richest  in  the  archi- 
pelago, their  yield  under  the  native  processes  being 
about  150  ounces  per  month.  Under  the  new  political 
relations  of  the  Philippines  their  resources  in  this 
direction  are  likely  to  be  systematically  exploited. 
The  placer  beds  on  the  Pacific  slopes  of  Luzon  are  in 
many  cases  near  the  sea,  ofifering  facilities  for  trans- 
portation. The  introduction  of  modern  methods  and 
machinery  might  develop  an  important  output  of  the 
precious  metal  in  this  region  and  in  Mindanao. 

Silver  occurs  on  several  of  the  islands,  including 
Cebu,  Mindoro,  and  Marinduque,  and  platinum  on 
Mindanao,  while  mercury  is  thought  to  exist  on  Panay 
and  Leyte.  Copper  occurs  somewhat  widely,  it  having 
been  found  in  Luzon,  Masbate,  Panay,  and  Mindanao, 

24 


370  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

though  it  has  not  yet  been  successfully  mined  by 
Europeans.  The  copper  ores  of  the  district  of  Le- 
panto,  Luzon,  have  been  rudely  mined  by  the  Igorrote 
tribe  from  remote  times,  they  manufacturing  their 
domestic  utensils  from  the  copper  thus  procured.  Re- 
ports of  the  richness  of  the  ores  have  led  to  several 
attempts  at  mining  on  the  part  of  the  Spaniards,  but 
these  were  individual  efforts,  much  money  being  spent 
without  providing  the  necessary  machinery  or  opening 
roads  for  the  conveyance  of  the  ore.  Discouragement 
has  arisen  from  the  rugged  nature  of  the  rocks,  the 
density  of  the  forest  jungle,  and  the  indolence  of  the 
natives;  but  the  principal  difificulty  in  the  way  has 
been  the  lack  of  capital  and  of  mining  experience.  A 
company  was  formed  in  1862  for  the  working  of 
several  mines  in  Lepanto,  the  ore  of  the  Mancayan 
mine  yielding  over  sixteen  per  cent,  of  copper,  twenty- 
four  of  sulphur,  five  of  antimony,  and  five  of  arsenic. 
Copper  mines  have  also  been  worked  at  Assit,  in  Mas- 
bate.  More  energy  and  better  appliances  are  needed 
to  develop  the  real  richness  of  the  islands  in  this  metal. 
Lead  occurs  in  Luzon,  Marinduque,  and  Cebu, 
veins  of  galena  having  been  found  in  Luzon  and  Cebu 
in  which  the  lead  is  associated  with  a  good  percentage 
of  gold  and  silver.  There  have  been  mining  opera- 
tions near  the  city  of  Cebu.  Iron  exists  in  Luzon, 
Panay,  and  Cebu,  ore  of  excellent  quality,  yielding  up 
to  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  pure  metal,  having  been 
found  in  Luzon.  But  the  backward  condition  of  the 
roads  has  kept  the  charges  for  transportation  so  high 
that  it  has  hitherto  proved  cheaper  to  import  than  to 
mine  iron.  Many'iron-works  have  been  started  and 
abandoned,   and    cheap    carriage    must    precede   any 


NATURAL    PRODUCTIONS.  371 

attempt  to  work  these  ores  with  profit.  There  was 
actually  more  activity  in  iron  mining  a  century  ago 
than  there  is  at  present. 

MINERALS. 

From  time  to  time  the  discovery  of  important  coal 
deposits  in  the  Philippines  has  been  reported,  its  oc- 
currence being  recorded  in  the  islands  of  Luzon,  Min- 
doro,  Negros,  Masbate,  Samar,  Panay,  Leyte,  Cebu, 
Mindanao,  and  several  of  the  smaller  islands.  None 
of  these  beds,  however,  contain  true  coal,  but  excel- 
lent lignite,  highly  carbonized,  and  in  very  extensive 
deposits,  has  been  found  in  Luzon,  Cebu,  Mindoro, 
and  Masbate.  Experiments  with  this  have  shown  it 
to  answer  very  satisfactorily  the  needs  of  steamers; 
but  it  is  impossible  to  make  use  of  it  under  present 
circumstances,  the  veins  being  situated  in  localities 
which  are  destitute  of  means  of  transportation.  The 
highway  and  the  railroad  are  sadly  needed  in  the 
Philippines,  even  if  for  the  exploitation  of  these  rich 
deposits  alone.  Systematic  exploration  is  similarly 
needed,  and  might  very  probably  lead  to  the  discovery 
of  veins  of  true  coal.  In  its  absence,  the  lignite  of  the 
Philippines  cannot  fail  to  be  of  great  value  to  future 
commerce  in  those  waters.  There  are  two  principal 
fields  of  this  mineral,  one  beginning  in  Caranson,  in 
the  south  of  Luzon,  and  apparently  extending  under 
sea  to  Samar,  and  the  other  in  western  Cebu  and  east- 
ern Negros.  In  the  first  of  these  a  bed  from  ten  to 
twenty  feet  thick,  yielding  good  steamboat  fuel,  crops 
out  at  Gatho,  and  the  second  shows  a  number  of  beds 
varying  in  quality  and  thickness. 

As  regards  the  need  of  exploration,  the  story  is 


372  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

told  of  a  vessel  which  was  wrecked  on  the  coast  of 
Mindoro,  the  captain  and  crew  being  forced  to  cross 
the  island  to  a  port  on  the  east  coast.  In  their  journey 
through  the  mountains  they  came  across  a  very  rich 
and  extensive  outcrop  of  coal,  forming,  they  said, 
great  ledges,  from  which  thousands  of  tons  had  broken 
ofif  and  fallen  to  the  foot  of  the  clifTs.  This  was  re- 
ported to  the  Spanish  authorities,  and  the  locality  was 
duly  made  government  property,  though  nothing 
further  was  done. 

Of  other  minerals,  the  most  abundant  is  sulphur, 
which  is  found  in  Luzon  and  Biliran,  occurring  in 
unlimited  quantities  in  and  about  the  volcanoes,  ex- 
tinct and  active,  sometimes  pure,  sometimes  mixed 
with  other  substances.  The  crater  of  the  Taal  volcano 
is  rich  in  sulphur,  which  has  been  profitably  worked. 
Petroleum  has  been  found  in  Cebu  and  Panay,  and 
IMindoro  possesses  mines  of  a  natural  paint,  probably 
composed  of  red  lead.  Gypsum  occurs  on  Mindoro 
and  Panay,  and  excellent  marbles  exist  in  large  beds 
on  Luzon  and  Romblon.  Some  of  those  of  the  prov- 
ince of  Butaan,  of  finely  variegated  color,  have  been 
used  in  the  ornamentation  of  churches,  but  beyond  this 
no  use  has  been  found  for  them.  Kaolin  occurs  in 
Luzon.  In  addition  to  the  mineral  deposits  are  numer- 
ous springs  of  mineral  waters,  sulphurous  and  ferru- 
ginous; and  hot  springs,  of  valuable  medicinal  prop- 
erties, occur  in  several  localities.  Great  virtue  is 
attributed  to  the  waters  of  Pagsanghan  by  the  people 
of  Manila,  and  immense  throngs  gather  in  the  Laguna 
to  drink  the  curative  waters,  and  join  the  processions 
in  honor  of  the  virgin  patroness  of  that  locality. 


IV.   CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS. 

GOVERNMENT. 

During  the  Spanish  administration,  the  PhiUppines, 
Hke  the  other  colonies  of  Spain,  were  under  the  con- 
trol of  a  governor-general  or  captain-general,  account- 
able to  the  authorities  at  home,  but  supreme  in 
authority  over  the  islands.  He  was  assisted  in  his 
duties  by  several  consulting  bodies,  including  a 
"  junta  of  authorities,"  founded  in  1850,  and  com- 
posed of  the  archbishop,  general-in-chief,  admiral, 
president  of  the  supreme  court,  etc.;  a  junta  of  agri- 
culture, industry,  and  commerce,  founded  in  1866; 
and  a  council  of  administration.  His  titles  covered  a 
page,  and  embraced  all  the  powers  of  government 
except  that  of  authority  over  the  f^eet,  and  partly  that 
over  the  church.  There  was  a  lieutenant-governor, 
who  took  his  place  in  case  of  his  death.  As  his  term 
of  office  was  brief,  only  three  years,  he  had  to  press 
the  people  hard  to  obtain  the  fortune  which  he  went 
to  Manila  to  seek, — and  usually  found. 

The  islands  were  divided  into  provinces,  each  under 
a  military  governor  or  a  civilian  alcalde,  one  of  whose 
principal  duties  was  the  collection  of  taxes.  The 
provinces  were  divided  into  pueblos  (towns  or  vil- 
lages), each  under  the  control  of  a  gobcrnadorcillo 
("  little  governor"),  who  was  chosen  from  the  natives 
or  the  mestizos,  and  was  an  important  local  personage, 
as  the  representative  of  the  provincial  governor.    This 

373 


374  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

official  settled  all  minor  questions  arising  in  his  juris- 
diction; but  his  principal  duty  was  to  see  that  the 
taxes  were  duly  collected  and  paid  over,  and  he  was 
obliged  to  make  good  any  deficiency  in  them.  He 
was  required  to  aid  in  the  arrest  of  criminals,  to  assist 
the  friar  in  church  affairs,  to  attend  upon  visiting  oflii- 
cials,  and  often  to  entertain  them  at  his  own  expense, 
and  at  times  to  travel  to  the  provincial  capital  on  offi- 
cial business,  paying  his  own  expenses.  In  compensa- 
tion for  these  various  duties  he  received  the  diminutive 
salary  of  $200  a  year,  was  allowed  to  carry  a  cane,  and 
received  the  title  of  capitan.  He  could  recuperate  him- 
self only  by  "  squeezing"  his  fellow-citizens. 

Wealthy  men  were  chosen  for  this  service,  if  there 
were  any  such,  and  often  kept  in  office  for  years 
against  their  wills.  Yet  the  position  was  sometimes 
earnestly  sought,  the  Philippine  native  dearly  enjoy- 
ing a  little  show  of  authority,  and  often  being  willing 
to  pay  for  the  privilege. 

As  for  his  responsibility  for  the  taxes,  he  had  sub- 
ordinates in  the  same  position.  The  towns  were  di- 
vided into  groups  of  from  forty  to  sixty  families,  Ba~ 
rangays,  each  under  a  cabcca,  or  native  official,  whose 
duty  it  was  to  collect  the  taxes  or  to  pay  out  of  his 
own  pocket  all  he  could  not  get  from  the  people.  This 
very  undesirable  position  was  forced  upon  the  well- 
to-do  inhabitants  of  the  town,  who,  though  nominally 
elected  every  two  years,  were  really  kept  in  office 
while  their  property  held  out,  financial  ruin  being  a 
not  uncommon  end  of  their  official  duties.  There  were 
other  minor  officials,  while  gohernadorcillos  who  had 
served  a  term  and  cabccas  of  ten  years'  standing 
formed  the  "  headmen"  of  the  town,  who  met  periodi- 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     375 

cally  at  the  tribunal,  or  town  hall,  for  the  discussion  of 
public  affairs. 

In  the  words  of  Worcester,  the  headmen  "  assemble 
every  Sunday  morning,  and,  headed  by  the  goberna- 
dorcillo,  and  frequently  also  by  a  band  playing  very 
lively  airs,  they  march,  to  the  convcnto  and  escort  the 
friar  to  church,  where  they  all  attend  mass.  Their 
state  dress  is  quite  picturesque.  Their  white  shirts 
dangle  outside  of  their  pantaloons  after  the  Philippine 
fashion,  and  over  them  they  wear  tight-fitting  jackets 
without  tails,  which  reach  barely  to  their  waists. 
When  the  jacket  is  buttoned,  it  causes  the  shirt  to 
stand  out  in  a  frill,  producing  a  most  grotesque  effect." 

The  above  description  of  the  governmental  organi- 
zation does  not  apply  to  all  the  inhabitants,  there  being 
wandering  mountain  and  forest  tribes  who  have  been 
brought  only  nominally  under  control  of  the  estab- 
lished government;  while  many  of  the  Moros,  or  Mo- 
hammedans, of  the  south  have  never  been  subjected 
to  Spanish  authority.  The  Sultan  of  Sulu  is  the  ruler 
of  all  the  Moros,  though  there  are  two  subordinate 
Sultans  in  Mindanao  who  are  only  nominally  subject 
to  him.  His  court  embraces  a  regent,  who  replaces 
him  during  his  absence,  a  minister  of  war,  and  a 
minister  of  justice;  while  there  are  many  datos  or 
chiefs.  The  local  village  ruler  bears  the  title  of  man- 
darin. 

There  was  no  feature  of  Spanish  rule  more  pro- 
vokingly  unjust  than  the  administration  of  justice. 
There  were  two  supreme  courts,  one  at  Manila  and 
one  at  Cebu,  and  forty-one  superior  courts,  with  the 
requisite  number  of  local  courts.  The  dilatoriness 
of  these  courts  became  proverbial,  even  in  the  slow- 


376  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

moving  East.  The  litigant  was  very  likely  to  be 
fleeced  out  of  a  sum  far  surpassing  the  value  of  the 
object  in  dispute  before  he  could  escape  from  the 
hands  of  the  judges  and  lawyers,  all  of  whom  were 
sharp  on  the  scent  for  fees.  "  Availing  one's  self  of 
the  dilatoriness  of  the  Spanish  law,"  says  a  recent 
traveller,  "  it  is  possible  for  a  man  to  occupy  a  house, 
pay  no  rent,  and  refuse  to  quit  on  legal  grounds  during 
a  couple  of  years  or  more.  A  person  who  has  not  a  cent 
to  lose  can  persecute  another  by  means  of  a  trumped- 
up  accusation,  until  he  is  ruined  by  an  'information  de 
pobrcza,' — a  declaration  of  poverty, — which  enables  the 
prosecutor  to  keep  the  case  going  as  long  as  he 
chooses,  without  needing  money  for  fees." 

RELIGION. 

Behind,  or  rather  side  by  side  with,  the  govern- 
mental institutions  of  the  Philippines  stood  the  reli- 
gious, exercising  a  co-ordinate  authority,  and,  as  they 
came  into  more  intimate  relations  with  the  people, 
acting  really  as  the  "power  behind  the  throne."  The 
early  treatment  of  the  natives  of  the  Philippines  by 
the  Spaniards  was  far  different  from  their  treatment 
of  the  American  Indians.  In  these  islands  the  people 
were  not  enslaved,  and  the  soldier  and  adventurer  were 
subordinated  by  the  priest,  the  small  body  of  troops 
being  accompanied  by  zealous  missionaries,  whose 
purpose  was  rather  to  Christianize  than  to  pillage  and 
oppress  the  natives.  The  result  was  that  the  friars 
gained  in  time  a  paramount  influence  over  the  people, 
all  of  whom  became  Christians,  with  the  exception  of 
the  wald  and  wandering  tribes,  who  continue  pagans, 
and  the  Moros  of  Mindanao  and  the  Sulu  Islands,  who 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     377 

are  zealous  Mohammedans, — though  their  Moham- 
medanism is  not  strictly  orthodox.  Their  panditas,  or 
priests,  are  subject  to  chcrifs,  hereditary  dignitaries 
who  exercise  both  temporal  and  spiritual  power. 

The  ecclesiastic  administration  of  the  islands  con- 
sists of  an  archbishop  at  Manila  and  bishops  in 
several  other  localities,  while  the  several  religious 
orders — the  Dominicans,  Franciscans,  Augustinians, 
and  Jesuits — have  convents  at  Manila  and  other 
places.  The  Jesuits,  expelled  from  the  islands  in  1768, 
as  a  result  of  the  religious  dissensions,  were  restored 
in  1852,  and  have  now  much  influence  in  Manila, 
though  their  religious  labors  are  confined  to  the  Mo- 
hammedan islands,  where  they  are  in  constant  peril 
of  their  lives  from  the  fierce  and  Christian-hating 
Moros.  The  Jesuits  are  the  only  learned  ecclesiastics 
in  the  Philippines,  being  usually  well  educated  and  of 
good  ability,  while  their  special  field  of  missionary 
labor  is  notable  for  an  absence  of  the  abuses  so  com- 
mon elsewhere. 

Unfortunately,  the  friars  of  the  religious  orders,  as 
a  rule,  have  been  men  of  very  different  stamp  from  the 
Jesuit  priests.  The  Austin,  Dominican,  Franciscan, 
and  Recoleto  friars  are  largely  recruited  from  the 
lowest  classes  of  Spain,  and  have  no  other  training 
than  that  of  the  seminary,  their  lack  of  secular  educa- 
tion leaving  them  a  very  ignorant  class.  These  are 
the  people  with  whom  the  Philippine  natives  have 
come  most  immediately  into  contact,  who  alone  have 
been  familiar  with  their  languages,  and  have  acted  as 
the  chief  medium  of  communication  between  the  peo- 
ple and  the  authorities.  It  has  not  suited  their  pur- 
poses to  have  the  people  speak  Spanish,  and  they  have 


378  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

not  hesitated  to  forbid  its  teaching  in  the  schools. 
The  result  has  been  that  the  education  of  most  of  the 
natives  was  confined  to  the  study  of  the  catechism  and 
of  a  few  prayers  in  their  own  language.  No  transla- 
tion of  the  Bible  has  been  permitted  in  the  islands. 

Many  abuses  have  arisen  from  this  state  of  afifairs. 
While  many  of  the  friars  have  been  moral  and  well- 
meaning  men,  their  ranks  have  included  a  number  of 
black  sheep,  there  being  scarcely  any  unpriestly  fault 
of  which  some  of  them  have  not  been  accused,  in- 
cluding drunkenness,  luxurious  living,  unchastity,  etc. 
Greed  for  money  has  been  one  of  their  besetting  sins. 
Their  charge  for  performing  the  marriage  ceremony, 
for  instance,  was  often  so  high  that  many  of  the  people 
were  forced  to  dispense  with  this  ceremony.  In  Mas- 
bate,  as  Worcester  was  told,  the  priests  exacted  fifty 
dollars  for  burying  an  uncofifined  body  and  seventy- 
five  if  a  cofifin  was  used,  besides  charging  a  round  sum 
for  the  cofBn  itself. 

The  religious  corporations  possess  large  revenues, 
owning  very  valuable  lands  in  Luzon,  which  they  rent 
to  the  natives  on  severe  conditions.  The  leases  are 
so  cunningly  worded  that  the  tenants  are  at  the  mercy 
of  their  landlords,  by  whom  they  are  often  very  un- 
justly treated.  "  The  Church,"  says  Foreman,  himself 
a  Catholic,  "  as  a  body-politic,  dispenses  no  charity, 
but  receives  all.  It  is  always  begging;  always  above 
civil  laws  and  taxes;  claims  immunity;  proclaims 
poverty,  and  inculcates  in  others  charity  to  itself." 

"  The  clergy,"  he  continues,  "  derive  a  very  large 
portion  of  their  incomes  from  commissions  on  the  sale 
of  cedillas,  sales  of  Papal  bulls,  masses,  pictures,  books, 
chaplets,  and  indulgences;  marriage,  burial,  and  bap- 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     379 

tismal  fees,  benedictions,  donations  touted  out  after 
the  crops  are  raised,  legacies  to  be  paid  for  in  masses, 
remains  of  wax  candles  left  in  the  church  by  the  faith- 
ful, fees  for  getting  souls  out  of  purgatory,  etc.  The 
surplus  revenues  over  and  above  parochial  require- 
ments are  supposed  to  augment  the  common  Church 
funds  in  Manila.  The  corporations  are  consequently 
immensely  wealthy,  and  their  power  and  influence  are 
in  consonance  with  that  wealth." 

If  the  instances  of  the  iniquiiiies  of  the  friars  and 
their  oppressive  treatment  of  the  people  that  are  on 
record  could  be  collated,  they  would  make  a  consider- 
able volume  filled  with  stories  of  shameful  delinquen- 
cies. Many  men,  indeed,  have  been  permitted  to  hold 
parishes  in  the  Philippines  who  would  not  have  been 
tolerated  in  Spain,  and  were  utterly  unfitted  by  educa- 
tion and  character  for  the  holding  of  a  religious  posi- 
tion. Their  treatment  of  the  natives  has  been  such  as 
to  arouse  a  bitter  hatred  against  them,  evidences  of 
which  were  shown  in  the  harsh  treatment  of  the  friars 
by  the  natives  during  the  recent  insurrection.  Of 
course,  the  friars,  as  a  whole,  are  not  chargeable  with 
these  faults,  but  their  reputation  suffers  from  the  de- 
linquency of  many  of  their  members. 

The  Christianity  of  the  natives  is  a  very  superficial 
one.  Of  their  religious  duties,  payment  of  the  cash 
demands  of  the  friars  is  one  of  the  most  rigidly  re- 
quired. As  regards  actual  religion,  very  little  will 
serve,  some  degree  of  outward  observance  being  the 
main  requirement.  It  is  in  considerable  measure  by 
religious  processions  that  the  Church  holds  its  ascend- 
ency over  the  Filipinos,  these  being  the  pride  and 
delight  of  the  native  mind.     On  the  occasion  of  the 


38o  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

great  Church  festivals  they  gather  in  multitudes,  both 
as  actors  and  spectators.  The  most  brilliant  of  these 
are  those  which  take  place  after  sunset,  when  hosts 
of  persons  carry  lighted  w^ax  candles;  the  procession 
being  sometimes  a  mile  or  more  long,  while  splendidly 
dressed  and  richly  jewelled  images  of  the  objects  of 
veneration  are  carried  in  the  line.  There  are  numer- 
ous bands  of  music,  groups  of  little  girls  dressed  in 
white,  and  everything  to  add  to  the  attraction  of  the 
procession,  the  dififerent  religious  orders  seeking  to 
surpass  each  other  in  display.  The  images,  of  life 
size,  and  dressed  in  gorgeously  ornamented  garments, 
are  borne  on  platforms  carried  on  the  shoulders  of 
their  votaries  and  illuminated  by  long  rows  of  wax 
lights  on  each  side  of  the  way. 

Everybody  takes  part  in  these  ceremonials;  uni- 
versal bustle  pervades  the  locality,  invitations  to  feasts 
are  given  or  accepted,  skilled  hands  busy  themselves 
in  making  sweetmeats  or  cooking  delicacies,  the 
houses  are  adorned  with  flowers  and  fruits,  handsome 
arches,  with  variegated  lanterns,  are  erected  in  the 
streets,  all  wear  their  finest  dresses,  music  is  heard 
everywhere,  fireworks  are  shown,  balloons  are  sent  up, 
and  all  forms  of  popular  amusement  are  in  full  play. 

It  has  been  said  that  it  is  the  policy  of  the  friars  to 
conduct  the  natives  to  heaven  by  a  pathway  of  flowers ; 
but  there  are  thorns  among  the  roses  and  difficulties 
on  the  path,  and,  despite  the  efforts  to  captivate  the 
simple-minded  people  by  outward  show,  the  friars 
have  succeeded  in  laying  up  a  large  debt  of  vengeance 
against  themselves,  if  we  may  judge  from  recent  de- 
velopments. 

The  evils  which  have  so  long  existed  in  the  ecclesi- 


CIVIL   AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.    381 

astical  administration  of  the  Philippines  can  scarcely 
continue  under  the  new  dispensation.  Hitherto  no 
Protestant  church  or  service  has  been  permitted,  but 
freedom  of  religious  belief  is  one  of  the  assured  results 
of  their  passing  under  the  influence  of  the  United 
States.  With  vigorous  Protestant  competition  in  reli- 
gious teaching,  education  deserving  of  the  name,  and 
strict  separation  of  Church  and  State,  a  very  different 
state  of  afifairs  promises  to  arise,  embracing  education 
of  higher  grade  and  religion  of  a  more  moral  tone  than 
those  that  have  hitherto  prevailed. 

PUBLIC  "WORKS. 

The  Philippine  Islands  are  notable  for  having  almost 
no  public  works  of  any  description.  Roads  are  prac- 
tically unknown.  In  the  Spanish  endeavor  to  subdue 
the  inhabitants,  the  primary  value  of  highways  seems 
to  have  been  ignored  still  more  here  than  in  Cuba; 
and  those  who  would  make  their  way  inland  have 
usually  only  the  native  bufifalo  tracks  to  follow  or  must 
struggle  with  primitive  nature.  To  find  a  road  pass- 
ing inland  on  which  a  carriage  can  travel  is  a  rare 
discovery.  The  few  roads  on  which  some  care  has 
been  bestowed  average  about  twenty-five  feet  in  width, 
some  of  them  being  ditched  and  graded,  but  very 
little  stone  being  used  upon  them.  Even  the  roads 
leading  from  Manila  are  unpaved  highways,  which 
become  impassable  to  vehicles  in  the  rainy  season. 
In  fact,  the  streets  of  Manila  itself  are  little  better, 
being  wretchedly  paved,  if  paved  at  all,  and  becoming 
mud  sloughs  in  the  rains.  In  the  wet  season  trans- 
portation depends  largely  on  bufifaloes  drawing  rude 
sledges,  a  sort  of  sleighing  upon  mud. 


382  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

Spain's  hold  on  the  islands  has  been  gained  without 
the  use  of  roads,  and  the  Spaniard  confines  himself 
mainly  to  the  coast  regions.  Other  towns  besides 
Manila  have  what  are  called  by  courtesy  carriage 
roads;  but  these  are  not  only  impassable  in  the  wet 
season,  but  are  apt  to  be  so  in  the  dry,  from  an  un- 
mended  washout  or  a  ruined  bridge.  The  roads  in 
general  are  mere  paths  on  which  even  horseback  travel 
is  next  to  impossible  during  the  rains,  they  being  a 
succession  of  pools  and  sloughs;  while  on  many  of 
them  a  horse  is  at  any  time  useless,  unbridged  streams 
being  encountered  too  deep  for  fording  and  at  times 
infested  by  man-eating  crocodiles.  The  water-bufifalo 
can  go  where  a  horse  cannot;  but  the  peculiarities  of 
this  brute,  and  in  particular  its  love  of  mud,  render  it 
an  undesirable  riding  animal.  In  short,  in  Philippine 
travel,  one  finds  it  best  to  go  by  water  where  rivers  are 
convenient;  by  carriage  or  on  horseback  where  there 
is  an  apology  for  a  road;  elsewhere  on  bufifalo-back 
or  on  foot.  When  a  traveller  has  baggage,  he  is  often 
obliged  to  depend  on  coolies  for  its  transportation. 

Railroad  enterprise  in  the  Philippines  has  hitherto 
been  confined  to  the  road  extending  from  Manila  to 
Dagupan,  123  miles  distant.  This  is  a  narrow-gauge 
road, — the  width  of  the  road-bed  being  three  feet  six 
inches,  and  the  engines  and  cars  proportionately  small. 
The  road  runs  northward,  its  terminus,  Dagupan,  be- 
ing on  the  Gulf  of  Langayen.  It  traverses  a  fertile 
region, — the  first  third  of  the  route  being  a  rice-grow- 
ing district,  the  second  a  sugar-cane  country,  while  the 
final  third  is  more  tropical  in  character,  yielding  some 
cofifee  and  minor  products,  while  the  cocoa-nut  palm 
is  very  abundant. 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     383 

It  is  not  surprising  that  with  this  comparatively 
short  railway  and  with  the  almost  utter  lack  of  prac- 
ticable roads,  the  country  has  not  been  developed. 
Overland  transportation  is  almost  non-existent,  and 
there  is  abundant  opportunity  for  the  labors  of  the 
American  engineer  if  it  is  proposed  to  open  up  the 
mineral  resources  of  the  country  or  advance  its  com- 
mercial interests.  As  it  stands  at  present,  it  presents 
almost  a  virgin  field  to  the  engineer. 

In  the  direction  of  water  traffic  some  more  enter- 
prise has  been  shown,  and  fairly  regular  steamship 
communication  exists  between  the  more  important 
islands,  lines  of  mail  and  merchant  steamers  run- 
ning with  a  moderate  degree  of  frequency.  Freight 
charges,  however,  are  very  high.  To  reach  islands  or 
ports  at  which  vessels  do  not  call,  only  the  native  sail- 
boat is  available.  This  answers  the  purpose  fairly  well 
in  good  weather,  but  is  not  a  comfortable  or  safe  mode 
of  travel  in  case  of  storm  or  a  high  sea. 

The  telegraph  has  attained  some  development,  there 
being  submarine  communication  with  Hong-Kong. 
The  cable  lands  at  Cape  Bolinao,  and  is  thence  carried 
overland  to  Manila.  The  principal  towns  in  Luzon 
have  telegraphic  connection  with  the  capital,  and  there 
is  a  cable  line,  laid  by  a  British  company,  extending 
from  Manila  to  Capiz,  in  Panay,  whence  a  land  line 
runs  to  Iloilo.  It  is  thence  extended  to  Bakalot,  in 
Negros,  round  the  coast  to  Escalante,  and  by  sea  to 
Cebu  Island,  ending  at  the  city  of  Cebu.  The  total 
length  of  cable  and  telegraph  lines  is  from  1500  to 
2000  miles. 


384  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

POPULATION. 

The  population  of  the  Phihppines  is  not  known, 
nothing  more  than  an  estimate  being  practicable.  It 
is  usually  roughly  estimated  at  8,000,000,  of  whom 
about  5,000,000  are  accredited  to  Luzon,  much  the 
most  populous  island.  The  population  is  a  composite 
one,  two-thirds  of  the  inhabitants  being  of  Malayan 
origin,  or  Indian,  as  they  are  often  called.  In  addition 
there  is  a  large  and  important  half-breed  population, 
born  of  native  mothers  and  European  or  Chinese 
fathers.  These  mestizos,  as  they  are  designated,  form 
a  potent  part  of  the  population.  They  are  especially 
numerous  in  Manila,  whose  estimated  300,000  inhabi- 
tants includes  50,000  Chinese  and  4000  Spanish  half- 
breeds.  Its  remaining  population  is  estimated  to  em- 
brace 200,000  natives,  40,000  Chinese,  5000  Spanish 
and  Creoles  of  Spanish  descent,  and  about  300  whites 
of  other  than  Spanish  origin.  The  whole  European 
population  of  the  Philippines  is  estimated  at  25,000, 
principally  Spanish,  the  remainder  being  mainly  Eng- 
lish and  German  merchants. 

The  large  number  of  Chinese  mestizos  is  due  to  the 
habits  of  Chinese  immigrants.  Despite  the  dislike  of 
the  natives  for  the  Chinese  and  the  several  massacres 
which  they  have  experienced  at  the  hands  of  the 
Spaniards,  they  have  continued  to  make  their  way  into 
the  islands,  in  which  their  industrious,  frugal,  and  per- 
severing habits,  as  compared  with  the  indolence  of  the 
natives,  have  given  them  almost  a  monopoly  of  the 
retail  trade.  In  Manila  they  are  everywhere  found, 
and  occupy  a  variety  of  industrial  positions,  the  mer- 
chants among  them  being  supplemented  by  barbers, 


CIVIL   AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.    3S5 

tanners,  dyers,  carpenters,  shoemakers,  tinsmiths,  and 
other  artisans.  Their  peaceful  demeanor  and  obedi- 
ence to  the  laws  give  their  enemies  no  opportunity  to 
interfere  with  them,  while  they  rarely  hesitate  to  pro- 
fess Christianity  if  they  find  it  will  be  of  any  aid  in 
business.  Thus  they  have  long  been  growing  steadily 
in  numbers,  wealth,  and  importance. 

Yet  the  Chinese  are  birds  of  passage,  returning 
home  to  be  succeeded  by  others.  For  some  reason  no 
Chinese  women  accompany  them,  the  women  of  China 
showing  a  remarkable  unwillingness  to  emigrate. 
Thus  among  525  Chinamen  in  the  fortress  of  Manila 
in  1855  there  were  only  two  women,  and  the  5055 
Chinamen  in  Binondo  included  only  eight  females,  all 
children.  It  is  to  this  state  of  afifairs  that  the  large 
mestizo  population  is  due.  The  dislike  of  the  natives 
for  the  Chinese  does  not  seem  to  be  shared  by  their 
women,  many  of  them  becoming  wives  or  handmaids 
of  these  foreigners.  Marriage  requires  a  preliminary 
subjection  to  the  Church  of  Rome,  and  as  most  of 
the  Chinese  decline  to  give  up  their  native  faith,  their 
relations  with  the  native  women  are  usually  outside 
the  pale  of  the  Church.  The  Chinese  mestizos  in  the 
archipelago  number  more  than  200,000,  being  numer- 
ous enough  to  form  separate  and  very  influential  com- 
munities. 

The  Chinese  were  at  first  restricted  by  law  to  agri- 
cultural labor.  But  the  dislike  felt  for  them  by  the 
rural  population,  and  their  invincible  tendency  to 
abandon  any  career  for  another  which  seems  more 
profitable,  led  them  to  break  through  this  restriction, 
and  they  in  time  gained  too  assured  a  position  in  the 
towns    to   be   disturbed.      Though    ready   to    accept 

25 


386  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

almost  any  avocation,  the  business  of  retail  shopkeep- 
ing  is  their  favorite  pursuit.  But  within  late  years 
many  of  them  have  become  wholesale  dealers  and 
merchants,  exporting  and  importing  largely  on  their 
own  account,  and  having  subordinate  agents  widely 
spread  through  the  islands.  The  Chinaman  is  a  born 
dealer,  cunning,  patient,  and  economical,  and  many 
of  the  Philippine  Chinese  have  grown  wealthy  through 
their  business  talent  and  activity. 

The  mestizos  seem  to  inherit  the  paternal  type,  their 
children  for  generations  displaying  the  Chinese  char- 
acter. None  of  the  natives  are  so  industrious,  eco- 
nomical, and,  generally,  so  prosperous.  They  inherit 
the  speculative  spirit  of  their  fathers  or  ancestors,  have 
gained  a  large  part  of  the  retail  trade,  and  many  of 
them  have  acquired  riches  and  landed  property.  They 
form  the  middle  class  of  the  people,  being  better  edu- 
cated and  more  moral  and  intellectual  than  the  natives, 
handsomer  and  better  dressed.  Some  of  their  women 
are  beautiful.  They  preserve  most  of  the  habits  of 
the  natives,  but  surpass  them  in  enterprise,  prudence, 
perseverance,  and  devotion  to  trade  and  commerce. 
In  short,  they  are  far  the  most  promising  part  of  the 
native  Philippine  population. 

THE  CIVILIZED  NATIVES. 

The  Filipinos,  as  they  are  designated  by  the  Span- 
iards, who  constitute  the  great  bulk  of  the  popula- 
tion, are  said  to  comprise  more  than  eighty  distinct 
tribes,  each  wath  its  special  habits.  These  are  scat- 
tered widely  through  the  multitude  of  islands,  and  of 
many  of  them  very  little  is  known.  The  aborigines 
are  believed  to  be  the  dwarfish  Negritos,  of  whom  few 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     387 

now  remain,  they  having  been  driven  into  the  wilds 
and  largely  annihilated  by  the  invading  Malays,  who 
now  compose  the  great  bulk  of  the  population.  The 
latter,  while  forming  numerous  tribes,  may  be  divided 
into  two  principal  races, — the  Tagals,  occupying  the 
north,  and  the  Visayas,  of  the  south.  Of  these,  all 
those  who  inhabit  the  towns  and  villages  profess  Chris- 
tianity, and  have  long  been  greatly  under  the  influ- 
ence of  the  clergy,  who  claim  6,000,000  nominal  Chris- 
tians. 

Outside  the  towns,  however,  religious  ordinances 
receive  little  attention,  and  the  mountainous  parts  of 
the  islands  are  inhabited  by  wild  tribes  of  pagans. 
The  Tagals  form  the  principal  inhabitants  of  Luzon, 
preferring  its  lowland  regions,  and  generally  building 
their  pile-supported  dwellings  near  water.  They  con- 
stitute the  bulk  of  the  population  in  the  towns  of  this 
island,  and  are  also  found  in  Mindoro,  Marinduque, 
and  several  of  the  smaller  southern  islands. 

Physically  the  Tagal  is  well  developed.  He  pos- 
sesses a  round  head,  high  cheek-bones,  flattish  nose, 
low  brow,  thickish  lips,  large  dark  eyes,  straight  black 
hair,  and  olive  complexion.  His  power  of  smell  is  re- 
markably acute.  The  natives  of  this  race  are  devoted 
to  agriculture,  rice  being  their  chief  crop  and  means  of 
living;  though  they  are  much  given  to  fishing,  and 
keep  swine  and  cattle  and  great  numbers  of  ducks  and 
fowls.  Cock-fighting  is  their  leading  passion;  they 
are  fond  of  theatrical  entertainments,  and  have  a 
strong  taste  and  talent  for  music,  being  very  successful 
in  playing  upon  European  instruments. 

Though  Roman  Catholic  in  faith,  their  old  super- 
stitions still  influence  them.    They  had  an  alphal)ct  of 


388  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

their  own  before  the  Spanish  conquest,  and  still  pos- 
sess some  of  their  ancient  songs  and  melodies.  Their 
language,  the  Tagalog,  has  made  its  way  largely 
through  the  islands  since  the  Spanish  conquest. 

The  X'isayas  inhabit  all  the  islands  south  of  Luzon 
and  north  of  Mindanao,  including  part  of  the  latter 
island  and  of  Palawan.  The  Calamianes,  inhabiting 
the  islands  of  that  name,  and  the  Caragus,  a  <:oast 
tribe  of  eastern  Mindanao,  are  usually  classed  with 
them.  The  Visayas  were  more  civilized  than  the  Ta- 
gals  at  the  time  of  settlement  by  the  Spanish,  and  lent 
their  aid  to  the  latter  in  the  conquest  of  the  Tagals. 
They  resemble  physically  the  Tagals  and  the  other 
Malayan  races  of  Luzon,  the  distinction  being  in  their 
language.  This  seems  a  dialect  of  the  Tagalog,  but 
is  rather  harsher,  and  is  less  copious,  refined,  and  sub- 
ject to  grammatical  rules,  while  it  has  more  Malay 
words  than  the  Luzon  dialects.  The  languages  are 
sufficiently  similar  to  enable  members  of  the  two  races 
to  converse  with  some  difficulty.  The  Visayans  fur- 
nish a  hardy,  seafaring  race,  though  with  the  tendency 
to  indolence  shown  by  the  Filipinos  in  general. 

Luzon  possesses  in  its  northwest  section  another 
civilized  tribe,  the  Ilocanes,  resembling  the  Tagals  in 
appearance  and  in  orderly  habits,  but  dilifering  in  dia- 
lect. In  truth,  this  is  the  main  difiference  between  the 
Malay  peoples  spread  so  widely  through  Malacca,  Su- 
matra, and  the  far-extended  islands  of  the  Pacific, 
from  Hawaii  to  Madagascar;  though  many  of  the 
island  Malays  have  varied  physically  through  inter- 
marriage with  aboriginal  populations. 

The  natives  so  far  mentioned,  originally  pagan,  now 
Christian,  are  known  by  the  Spaniards  under  the  gen- 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     389 

eral  title  of  Indios,  or  Indians,  in  distinction  to  the 
Moros,  or  Mohammedan  natives  of  the  most  southern 
islands,  an  intractable  race  who  have  resisted  all  the 
efforts  of  the  missionaries  at  conversion,  and  who  con- 
form more  to  the  general  idea  of  Malays  in  their  fierce, 
warlike  disposition,  their  seafaring  habits,  and  their 
tendency  to  piracy. 

The  Moros  are  of  late  date  in  the  Philippines,  which 
they  entered  about  the  same  time  as  the  Spaniards, 
making  their  way  thither  from  Borneo,  and  bringing 
with  them  the  Moslem  faith  and  that  unyielding  ad- 
herence to  the  doctrines  of  Islamism  which  seems 
everywhere  characteristic  of  Mohammedans.  Their 
route  was  by  way  of  the  Sulu  Islands,  adjacent  to 
Borneo  and  only  recently  attached  to  the  Philippine 
archipelago. 

Landing  first  in  Basilan,  they  quickly  occupied 
Sulu,  Tawi-Tawi,  and  the  smaller  islands  of  the  group, 
and  in  time  made  their  way  by  force  of  arms  into  Min- 
danao, spread  throughout  its  coast  region,  and  oc- 
cupied Balabac  and  the  south  of  Palawan.  In  the 
latter  island  they  first  came  into  collision  with  the 
Spaniards,  who  checked  their  advance,  though  they 
have  never  succeeded  in  expelling  them  from  the 
island. 

The  Moros  are  born  pirates.  The  sea,  rather  than 
the  land,  is  their  native  habitation.  They  haunt  the 
coasts  and  dwell  as  nearly  as  possible  in  their  native 
element  by  building  their  villages  over  the  water,  each 
house  erected  on  piles  sunk  in  the  shoal  sea.  In  them 
we  seem  to  possess  a  surviving  remnant  of  the  Malay 
sea-rovers  who  in  times  past  manned  their  war-praus 
and  went  forth  to  conquer  the  multitudinous  islands 


390  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

of  the  South  Sea.  In  the  Sulus  they  retain  this  habit. 
Moved  by  a  fanatical  hatred  of  the  Christians,  and  par- 
ticularly of  the  Spaniards,  whom  they  early  learned 
to  hate,  they  have  during  several  centuries  made  life 
anything  but  safe  and  agreeable  on  the  northern 
islands  by  their  incessant  raids. 

These  piratical  expeditions  became  annual  events^. 
At  the  setting  in  of  the  southwest  monsoon  the  Moros 
would  launch  their  boats,  seek  the  central  and  north- 
ern islands,  harry  the  Spanish  and  native  coast  towns, 
and  hasten  back  before  the  changing  of  the  winds. 
In  these  raids  they  were  usually  successful  and  always 
cruel.  Captives  were  taken  by  thousands,  the  men 
being  butchered  after  having  been  forced  to  harvest 
their  own  crops  for  the  benefit  of  the  captors,  the 
women  and  children  carried  away,  the  former  for  the 
seraglio,  the  latter  to  be  brought  up  as  slaves. 

This  state  of  affairs  continued  for  over  two  cen- 
turies, the  Moros  not  alone  attacking  the  natives,  but 
killing  many  Spaniards  and  holding  others  for  ransom. 
They  particularly  hated  the  priests  and  friars,  whom 
they  took  every  opportunity  to  capture.  All  this  was 
not  viewed  with  equanimity  by  the  Spaniards.  Many 
costly  expeditions  were  sent  against  the  Moros,  with 
temporary  but  no  permanent  success.  At  times  land- 
ings were  made  and  forts  built  on  Sulu  itself,  the  very 
centre  of  the  Moro  power.  But  they  did  not  remain, 
the  garrisons  being  in  every  case  slain  or  driven  out 
by  the  indomifable  Moslems. 

Such  was  the  state  of  aflfairs  until  within  the  past 
quarter-century,  in  which  the  development  of  light- 
draught  steam  gunboats  and  rapid-fire  guns  gave  the 
Spaniards  at  length  the  advantage  over  their  foes,  who 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     391 

continued  to  use  their  effective  but  antiquated  steel 
weapons,  the  kris,  barong,  and  campilan,  various  forms 
of  sword  and  dagger.  Guns  they  rarely  obtained,  and 
used  poorly  when  they  did. 

Eventually  an  efficient  patrol  of  gunboats  was  es- 
tablished, the  sea-built  villages  were  shelled  and  the 
people  driven  inland,  and  no  prau  was  permitted  to 
put  to  sea  without  a  Spanish  permit  and  a  show  of 
the  Spanish  flag.  If  encountered  without  these,  it 
was  at  once  sunk.  The  town  of  Sulu  was  destroyed 
in  1876  and  a  Spanish  military  post  established  in  its 
place.  Other  points  were  taken  and  fortified,  the  raids 
of  the  Moros  were  effectually  checked,  and  a  sort  of 
armed  truce  followed,  broken  at  intervals  by  both 
sides.  Such  was  the  ultimate  state  of  affairs,  the 
Moros  practically  preserving  their  independence,  but 
forced  to  desist  from  their  warlike  habits. 

These  people  are  highly  skilful  as  boatmen  and 
sailors.  Their  praus,  neatly  carved  from  logs,  are  of 
knife-like  sharpness  in  bow  and  keel,  and  can  be  driven 
through  the  water  with  great  swiftness.  Bamboo  out- 
riggers prevent  them  from  sinking  even  when  filled 
with  water.  The  men  are  energetic  and  industrious, 
— in  such  work  as  they  are  willing  to  perform, — being 
free  from  the  listless  indolence  of  the  northern  natives. 
They  are  of  medium  height  and  often  of  superb  physi- 
cal development,  always  going  armed  unless  prevented 
from  doing  so.  Their  women  are  exceedingly  fond  of 
bright  colors,  green  and  scarlet  in  particular;  while 
their  children,  though  possessing  clothes,  make  little 
use  of  them,  living  more  in  the  water  than  on  land. 

What  difficulties  the  Americans  are  likely  to  have 
with  these  people,  in  the  event  of  occupation  of  the 


392  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

islands,  remains  to  be  seen.  Hatred  of  Qiristians  is 
their  strongest  passion,  and  they  beUeve  that  whoever 
takes  the  hfe  of  a  Christian  increases  his  chance  of 
future  happiness.  If  slain  while  slaughtering  the  foes 
of  his  faith  he  goes  straight  to  the  seventh  heaven  of 
bliss.  This  unpleasant  belief  at  times  leads  to  a 
bloody  result.  Some  Moro,  weary  of  life,  and  hopeful 
of  speedy  glory  in  the  next  world,  prepares  himself 
carefully  and  takes  a  solemn  oath  to  die  killing  Chris- 
tians. Then,  hiding  about  him  one  of  the  deadly 
Moro  weapons,  he  seeks  the  nearest  town.  If  ad- 
mitted, he  draws  the  concealed  weapon  and  runs 
amuck  through  the  street,  killing  every  living  being 
in  his  path  until  he  is  himself  slain.  At  times  one  of 
these  mad  fanatics  takes  an  incredible  number  of  lives 
before  he  is  dispatched.  The  news  of  his  death  is  joy- 
fully received  by  his  relatives. 

So  fierce  and  intractable  a  people  as  this  is  not 
likely  to  prove  easy  to  deal  with.  Yet  other  methods 
than  those  of  the  Spaniards  may  have  better  efifects. 
Hostility,  treachery,  slaughter,  are  not  the  best  agents 
with  which  to  win  peace  and  confidence.  "  If  you 
meet  armed  Moros  outside  of  the  town  order  them  to 
lay  down  their  weapons  and  retire;  if  they  do  not  in- 
stantly obey,  shoot  them."  Such  was  the  advice  of 
General  Arolas  to  Worcester,  the  American  naturalist. 
Worcester,  on  the  contrary,  treated  them  with  kind- 
ness and  confidence,  and  obtained  their  respect  and 
trust  in  return.  Probably  a  general  adoption  of  this 
treatment  would  convert  the  Moros  from  enemies-  to 
friends.  What  is  specially  needed  is  to  let  their  reli- 
gion alone.  To  interfere  with  that  in  any  way  would 
be  a  sure  means  of  provoking  hostility. 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL  RELATIONS.     393 

THE  WILD   TRffiES. 

The  uncivilized  inhabitants  of  the  Phihppme  Islands 
belong  to  two  widely  distinct  races,  the  Negrito  abo- 
rigines and  the  Malay  invading  race.  The  Negritos 
are  savages  of  the  lowest  grade,  once  wide-spread 
throughout  the  islands,  but  gradually  driven  back 
and  exterminated  by  the  invaders  till  few  of  them 
remain,  and  these  confined  to  the  most  inaccessible 
regions  of  Luzon  and  some  other  islands.  A  con- 
siderable number"  of  them  remain  in  Mindanao  and 
some  in  Negros,  which  derives  its  name  from  them. 
The  total  number  remaining  is  perhaps  not  over 
25,000. 

They  are  of  dwarfish  stature,  the  men  averaging 
four  feet  eight  inches  high,  and  are  thin  and  spindle- 
legged,  with  flattish  nose,  full  lips,  thick  frizzled  black 
hair,  and  very  dark  complexion.  They  wear  little 
clothing,  tattoo  themselves,  have  no  fixed  abodes,  and 
wander  through  the  forests,  living  on  game,  honey, 
wild  fruits,  roots  of  the  arum,  and  such  other  food  as 
they  can  obtain.  They  sell  wax  to  the  Christians  in 
exchange  for  tobacco  and  betel.  Their  weapons  are 
the  bow  and  arrow,  the  latter  usually  poisoned.  One 
of  their  characteristics  is  an  extraordinary  prehensile 
power  in  the  toes,  very  useful  in  climbing.  They  can 
descend  head  downward  the  rigging  of  a  ship,  hang- 
ing on  by  the  toes,  and  can  pick  up  minute  objects 
with  their  feet.  This  lowest  of  the  races  seems  to  have 
been  at  one  time  very  wide-spread,  being  found  now 
in  widely  separated  regions,  while  similar  dwarf  tribes 
are  numerous  in  the  forests  of  Africa. 

The  Negritos  are  also  known  as  Aetas  (in  Min- 


394  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

danao  they  are  called  Mamanuas),  and  have  mingled 
to  some  extent  with  the  Malays  and  Chinese,  there 
being-  a  number  of  half-breed  tribes.  Thus  the  Itanegs 
have  a  mixture  of  Chinese  blood,  the  Ifugaos  of  Japa- 
nese, the  resulting  half-breeds  being  superior  in  char- 
acter to  the  Negritos.  The  former,  according  to  the 
friars,  only  need  conversion  to  make  good  Indios. 
The  Tagbanuas  of  Palawan  are  thought  to  be  a  half- 
breed  of  Malay  and  Negrito,  being  dark-skinned  and 
with  curly  hair.  Though  wild  wanderers,  with  little 
pretence  to  clothing,  they  are  much  superior  to  the 
Negritos, — friendly  in  disposition,  less  suspicious  than 
savage  tribes  generally,  and  possessing  that  talent  for 
music  which  is  a  Malay  characteristic.  They  even 
possess  an  alphabet,  a  simple  syllabic  one. 

Their  huts  are  mere  leaf  shelters,  in  which  it  is  im- 
possible to  stand  erect,  and  in  which  fire  smudges  are 
kept  going  to  drive  away  insect  pests.  Their  utensils 
are  a  few  earthen  pots,  and  much  of  their  time  is 
spent  in  the  forest  in  search  of  honey  and  wax  and 
other  useful  substances.  Polygamy  does  not  exist 
among  them,  but  child  marriage  is  very  common, 
children  being  betrothed  sometimes  before  birth, — 
the  proviso  being  made  that  they  should  prove  of  the 
desired  sex.  Their  legal  system  is  a  simple  one.  The 
person  accused  of  a  serious  crime  and  his  accuser  are 
led  to  a  deep  pond,  under  whose  water  they  dive 
simultaneously.  The  one  who  stays  under  the  longest 
is  believed  to  have  told  the  truth. 

Such  are  some  of  the  characteristics  of  one  of  the 
half-breed  tribes  with  Negrito  blood.  In  addition  to 
the  savages  named  are  a  large  number  of  Malay  tribes, 
which  diflfer  greatly  in  character  and  customs, — wan- 


CIVIL  AND   POLITICAL   RELATIONS.     395 

derers  in  the  forests  and  on  the  mountains,  some  of 
them  fierce  and  suspicious  in  disposition,  others  kindly 
and  trusting.  Those  who  show  dangerous  hostihty 
to  the  whites  have  doubtless  good  reason  for  their 
feeling,  and  different  treatment  might  in  many  cases 
change  their  attitude,  though  some  tribes  in  the  high- 
lands of  Luzon  and  Mindanao  seem  natively  fierce  and 
warlike.  These  warlike  hill-tribes  might  perhaps  be 
best  disposed  of  by  converting  them  into  soldiers,  as 
England  has  done  with  similar  tribes  in  India. 

The  wild  tribes  are  numerous  and  possess  a  con- 
siderable variety  of  languages,  the  dialects  of  the  sepa- 
rate tribes  being  usually  unintelligible  to  each  other, 
while  sometimes  a  dialect  seems  confined  to  a  single 
family  group.  The  title  of  Igorrotes  or  Igolotes,  once 
the  name  of  a  single  tribe,  was  gradually  extended  to 
include  the  several  head-hunting  tribes  of  Luzon,  and 
later  to  embrace  nearly  all  the  wild  tribes  of  the  island. 
There  are  said  to  be  several  tribes  of  head-hunters, 
comprising  the  Altasanes,  the  Apayaos,  and  the  Gad- 
danes.  It  is  stated  that  a  Gaddanes  youth  cannot  hope 
to  win  a  bride  unless  he  can  show  at  least  one  human 
head  in  proof  of  his  valor. 

Of  the  tribes  of  Mindanao,  seventeen  are  included 
among  the  pagan  hill  tribes,  and  most  of  the  smaller 
islands  have  interior  wild  tribes.  As  we  have  said, 
they  are  by  no  means  all  warlike.  Worcester,  who 
penetrated  to  the  interior  of  a  considerable  number 
of  the  islands  and  came  into  contact  with  many  of  the 
tribes,  had  no  trouble  with  any  met  by  him,  even  those 
of  reputed  fierceness.  For  example,  in  penetrating 
Mindoro,  he  was  warned  against  a  tribe  of  head-hunt- 
ing cannibals.    On  meeting  this  tribe,  the  Mangyans, 


396  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

he  found  them  the  most  harmless  of  people,  simple, 
confiding,  and  helpful  in  every  way  possible  to  them. 
They  lived  the  most  primitive  life,  wandering  through 
the  forests  during  the  dry  season  and  sleeping 
wherever  night  overtook  them,  under  a  hasty  shelter 
of  palm  leaves,  and  in  the  wet  season  building  a  plat- 
form on  poles,  roofed  with  leaves  of  the  rattan  or  palm. 
The  attire  of  the  women  was  a  curious  mass  of  cord, 
made  of  strips  of  rattan,  coiled  from  waist  l;o  hips  and 
supporting  a  clout  of  bark.  The  men  wore  only  the 
clout.  , 

In.  addition  to  the  wild  tribes,  there  are  in  the  inte- 
rior of  some  of  the  islands  lurking  bands  of  tiiUsancs, 
or  bandits,  made  up  of  escaped  convicts  and  other  out- 
laws, who  form  perilous  neighbors  to  the  peacefully 
inclined.  Cowardly  in  grain,  their  attacks  are  mainly 
on  the  defenceless,  while  in  their  difficult  retreats  they 
easily  keep  beyond  the  reach  of  the  lax  authorities. 

EDUCATION. 

The  Spanish  have  established  what  bear  the  name 
of  schools  for  the  education  of  the  Philippine  natives, 
but  the  name  rarely  represents  the  thing,  education 
there  being  but  a  travesty  of  what  it  is  in  enlightened 
lands.  Some  $40,000  were  annually  appropriated  by 
the  Spanish  rulers  for  the  support  of  the  provincial 
schools,  but  it  cannot  safely  be  said  that  all  this  money 
reached  the  schools.  The  school-master  has  been  none 
too  well  equipped  for  his  work.  Manila  possessed  a 
normal  school  or  training  seminary  for  teachers,  but  its 
tests  w^ere  anything  but  rigid,  and  its  graduates  set  out 
upon  their  work  with  very  little  education  of  their 
own. 


CIVIL  AND  POLITICAL    RELATIONS.     397 

The  rate  of  pay  was  miserably  small,  and  the  draw- 
ing of  salaries  tied  up  with  so  much  red  tape  that  it 
cost  a  fair  share  of  the  monthly  stipend  to  get  the 
remainder.  This  was  not  all.  The  teachers  were  not 
at  liberty  to  impart  what  little  learning  they  possessed. 
The  village  friars  played  the  role  of  school  inspectors, 
and  took  good  care  that  nothing  should  be  taught  of 
which  they  did  not  approve.  In  particular  they  laid 
an  embargo  on  Spanish.  It  was  long  ago  enacted  that 
the  natives  should  be  taught  the  doctrines  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  Spanish  language,  and  many  decrees 
have  been  passed  for  the  erfforcement  of  this  law. 
Even  as  late  as  1887  the  governor-general  pointedly 
notified  the  archbishop  that  this  requirement  was  not 
observed.  But  nothing  has  been  done  in  the  matter. 
It  did  not  suit  the  friars  that  the  natives  should  speak 
Spanish,  and  they  took  excellent  care  that  it  should 
not  be  taught.  Some  of  the  better  educated  natives 
might  obtain  a  smattering  of  this  language,  with  some 
knowledge  of  writing,  reading,  and  arithmetic;  but 
education  has  usually  been  restricted  to  the  teaching 
of  some  of  the  prayers  of  the  Church  and  a  smattering 
of  the  catechism. 

When  one  compares  this  with  the  great  develop- 
ment of  education  in  Hawaii,  through  the  labors  of  the 
Protestant  missionaries,  it  becomes  evident  that  the 
development  of  the  Philippine  intellect  has  been 
shamefully  neglected.  The  new  owners  or  guardians 
of  the  island  will  have  a  largely  unworked  field,  and 
an  opportunity  of  greatly  developing  the  intelligence 
of  the  natives,  who  are  quick  to  learn  and  anxious  for 
the  opportunity. 

The  onlv  educational  institutions  on  the  islands  of 


398  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

any  practical  value  are  Chose  at  Manila.  Among  these 
is  the  University  of  St.  Thomas,  a  Dominican  institu- 
tion, with  over  a  thousand  students,  and  professor- 
ships of  theology,  metaphysics,  grammar,  canon  and 
civil  law,  but  none  of  science,  modern  languages,  or 
the  other  advanced  branches  insisted  on  in  recent  col- 
leges elsewhere. 

Another  Dominican  institution,  the  College  of  San 
Juan  de  Letran,  has  an  excellent  equipment  and  a  fine 
museum  of  history  and  the  arts.  It  teaches  only  na- 
tive youth.  Medicine  and  pharmacy  are  taught  in  the 
College  of  San  Jose.  The  Royal  Polytechnic  Society 
has  for  its  object  the  promotion  of  the  arts  and 
sciences.  There  is  a  nautical  school,  an  academy  of 
painting,  several  colleges  for  women,  etc. 

Much  the  best  school  in  the  archipelago  is  the  Jesuit 
institution  called  the  Ateneo  Municipal,  situated  in 
Manila,  and  including  many  able  scholars  among  its 
faculty.  Its  scope  is  one  of  qonsiderable  breadth,  in- 
cluding courses  of  study  in  many  branches,  such  as 
mathematics,  commerce,  modern  and  ancient  lan- 
guages, history,  science,  philosophy,  painting,  and 
various  others.  Another  important  Jesuit  institution 
is  the  observatory  at  Manila,  which  is  very  well 
equipped  with  apparatus,  particularly  that  adapted  to 
meteorological  observation  and  for  recording  the 
movements  of  earthquakes.  Skilled  and  able  men  are 
at  the  head  of  this  institution,  whose  observations  are 
of  great  value  to  merchants  in  giving  timely  notice 
of  the  approach  of  typhoons.  If  necessary,  warning 
of  the  course  of  a  threatening  storm  is  cabled  to  Hong- 
Kong. 


V.  CENTRES  OF  POPULATION. 

MANILA. 

The  central  fact  in  a  description  of  the  PhiHppine 
Islands  is  the  city  of  Manila,  the  capital  of  the  archi- 
pelago, the  centre  of  Spanish  power  for  the  past  three 
centuries,  and  one  of  the  great  commercial  cities  of 
the  eastern  world.  This  metropolis,  situated  in  north 
latitude  14°  36',  east  longitude  120°  57',  is  in  efifect 
two  cities, — old  Manila,  the  walled  and  fortified  centre 
of  governmental  rule,  on  the  left  bank  of  the  Pasig 
River,  and  Binondo,  or  New  Manila,  the  business 
centre,  in  which  the  merchants  reside  and  the  ware- 
houses are  built,  on  the  right  of  the  stream. 

The  river  itself,  the  dividing  line  between  the  old 
city  and  the  new,  forms  one  of  the  most  active  and 
interesting  portions  of  the  whole  situation,  with  its 
hosts  of  busy  craft  of  varied  size  and  shape,  including 
numbers  of  great,  square-ended  cargo-lighters,  forced 
up  the  stream  by  pole-wielding  Malays,  their  sturdy 
limbs  and  bodies  well  revealed  by  their  very  scant 
costume.  Steamers,  schooners,  and  other  craft  from 
the  interior  line  the  banks.  Among  fliem  are  large 
dug-out  canoes,  fashioned  from  tree-trunks,  for  light 
freight,  and  smaller  ones  with  outriggers  and  shades 
for  carrying  passengers.  In  addition  are  the  ferry- 
boats, which  move  up  and  down  stream,  the  whole 
forming  a  very  animated  scene.    These  boats  and  the 

399 


400  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

up-river  craft  are  manned  by  Tagals,  the  natives  who 
form  the  great  bulk  of  the  city  population. 

The  Pasig,  which  forms  the  dividing  line  of  the 
oflficial  and  the  commercial  cities,  and  the  link  between 
the  lake  named  Laguna  de  Bay  and  the  bay  of  Manila, 
is  fourteen  miles  long,  averages  about  350  feet  in 
width,  and  varies  from  three  to  twenty-five  feet  in 
depth.  It  is  crossed  by  three  bridges,  one  of  them  a 
suspension  bridge.  The  Puente  Grande,  which  unites 
Manila  and  Binondo,  is  a  time-honored  structure, 
originally  built  of  wood  upon  masonry  piers,  and  with 
seven  arches  of  different  sizes.  Two  of  these  were  de- 
stroyed by  the  earthquake  of  1824,  but  they  have  been 
restored.  The  bridge  is  457  feet  long  and  24  wide, 
and  affords  fine  views  of  the  widely  different  cities  on 
the  opposite  sides  of  the  stream. 

Manila,  the  old  city,  or  the  citadel,  as  it  is  at  times 
called,  is  a  place  straitened  in  dimensions,  and  sur- 
rounded by  massive  walls,  forty  feet  thick,  and  about 
two  and  a  quarter  miles  in  circuit,  possessing  eight 
gates,  each  with  its  portcullis  and  a  drawbridge  cross- 
ing the  moat  without.  The  latter  is  supposed  to  be 
filled  with  water  from  the  river,  but  the  sluices  have 
been  out  of  order  for  years,  and  the  moat  is  half  full 
of  filthy  mud,  which  the  authorities  dread  to  disturb 
lest  they  should  set  afloat  the  seeds  of  pestilence. 
Until  1852  the  drawbridge  between  the  old  city  and 
the  new  was  drawn  up  every  night  and  the  gate  closed, 
as  if  feudal  conditions  still  prevailed. 

The  walls,  built  about  1590,  and  several  times  since 
cracked  by  earthquakes,  are  still  serviceable  against 
native  attacks,  but  would  not  stand  long  against 
modern   armies   with   heavy   guns.     Their   tops   are 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  401 

mounted  with  cannon  two  centuries  old.  The  city 
itself  consists  of  seventeen  streets,  of  fair  width  and 
crossing  at  right  angles.  These  are  kept  reasonably 
clean.  As  little  business  is  done  here,  few  people  are 
seen  in  the  streets,  whose  monotony  and  dull  respecta- 
bility form  a  striking  contrast  to  the  bustling  activity 
of  the  city  beyond  the  stream. 

The  public  edifices,  including  the  city  hall,  the 
cathedral,  etc.,  are  in  a  large  square,  whose  centre  con- 
tains a  statue  of  Charles  V.,  surrounded  by  a  garden 
of  flowers.  The  cathedral,  built  early  in  the  history 
of  the  city,  has  been  ruined  several  times  since  by 
earthquakes,  the  last  time  in  1880.  It  has  been  re- 
placed by  a  new  cathedral,  built  of  brick  and  stone, 
and  the  most  imposing  structure  in  the  colony.  It  is 
celebrated  for  the  splendor  of  its  altars  and  interior 
decorations.  Most  of  the  great  religious  processions 
for  which  Manila  is  noted  begin  and  end  at  its  doors. 
Another  of  the  imposing  buildings  of  the  city  is  the 
archbishop's  palace,  an  extensive  though  not  specially 
handsome  edifice.  The  oldest  church  in  the  city  is  that 
of  San  Francisco.  It  is  under  the  Franciscans,  who 
have  lavished  money  upon  it,  its  interior  being  mag- 
nificent in  decorations. 

The  palace  of  the  late  governor-general  is  in  Mala- 
canan,  a  suburb  of  the  new  city.  It  is  massive  in 
structure  and  wide  in  area,  but  low  in  elevation. 
.Standing  on  the  bank  of  the  Pasig,  it  is  surrounded 
by  a  garden  of  flowers  and  fruits  famous  for  its  luxu- 
riance. Here  grow  in  rich  profusion  the  most  ex- 
quisite blooms  of  the  tropical  East  and  the  most  lus- 
cious and  attractive  fruits.  The  palace  commands  a 
fine  view  of  the  city  and  river,  it  having  a  large  bal- 

26 


402  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

cony,  from  which  the  governor-general  was  accus- 
tomed to  view  the  yearly  boat-race  that  took  place  on 
the  king's  birthday.  In  its  interior  are  many  evidences 
of  pomp  and  splendor,  including  a  spacious  ball-room 
where  receptions  were  held,  and  to  which,  several 
times  a  year,  the  elite  of  the  city  were  invited. 

Other  edifices  include  the  mint,  museum,  univer- 
sity, academy  of  arts,  hospitals,  arsenal,  prison,  bar- 
racks, convents,  and  monasteries.  Outside  the  walls, 
extending  along  the  bay  shore,  is  the  beautiful  Lu- 
neta,  the  favorite  resort  of  the  aristocracy  of  Manila. 
It  constitutes  a  drive  and  promenade,  the  carriage  road 
passing  each  side  of  and  around  a  slightly  raised  oval 
space,  with  chairs  and  benches  for  the  people  and  two 
stands  for  bands.  Deserted  by  day,  it  is  thronged  in 
the  evening,  carriages  passing  in  a  constant  stream, 
while  equestrians  and  pedestrians  add  to  the  throng. 

The  Luneta  of  late  years  has  gained  a  ghastly 
repute,  a  new  and  popular  entertainment  being  pro- 
vided there  which  one  would  think  even  Spaniards 
could  not  enjoy,  though  they  are  said  to  have  been 
keenly  entertained.  This  was  the  execution  of  the 
prisoners  taken  during  the  insurrection.  The  helpless 
captives  were  lined  up  in  numbers  on  the  sea-wall  and 
shot  down  by  soldiers  of  their  own  race,  at  the  com- 
mand of  Spanish  officers,  and  seemingly  to  the  high 
enjoyment  of  crowds  of  Spanish  spectators,  who 
flocked  to  the  scene  as  to  a  spectacle. 

While  the  population  of  the  official  city  is  small, 
that  of  Binondo  (the  new  city)  and  of  the  suburbs  is 
large,  being  estimated  at  from  250,000  to  300,000. 
The  new  city  is  as  active  as  the  old  one  is  quiet  and 
dull.     Here  are  the  large  business  houses,  the  retail 


CENTRES   OF    POPULATION.  403 

and  wholesale  stores,  the  commercial  warehouses,  the 
bustle  of  carts  and  carriages,  the  constant  coming  and 
going  which  make  the  life  of  a  centre  of  commercial 
activity.  There  is  fairly  good  wharfage  along  the 
Pasig,  and  numbers  of  warehouses  adjoining  the 
stream,  that  intended  for  tobacco  being  specially  ex- 
tensive. The  edifice  in  which  cigars  were  made  for 
the  state  during  the  existence  of  the  monopoly  is  vast 
in  dimensions,  9000  women  having  been  steadily  em- 
ployed within  its  walls. 

Stone,  brick,  and  tiles  form  the  ordinary  building 
materials  of  Binondo,  though  about  one-third  of  the 
dwellings  are  the  native  wooden  houses  with  thatch  of 
nipa  palm.  The  better  class  of  houses  follow  the 
Spanish  fashion,  as  seen  in  Cuba  and  Porto  Rico, 
having  a  central  patio  or  court,  surrounded  by  shops, 
warehouses,  stables,  and  domestic  offices,  the  family 
occupying  the  floor  above.  This  is  built  of  wood,  the 
lower  story  being  of  brick  or  stone.  A  gallery  in  the 
interior  looking  into  the  patio  is  a  general  feature, 
and  a  corridor  near  the  street  communicates  with  the 
apartments.  Houses  more  than  two  stories  high  are 
rare.  All  the  rooms  have  sliding  windows,  the  small 
panes  being  made  of  fiat,  half-transparent  oyster-shells, 
through  which  the  full  light  of  the  sun  cannot  make 
its  way. 

The  apartments  are  large  and  are  furnished  much 
as  in  European  houses,  with  mirrors,  tables,  chairs, 
sofas,  paper  on  the  walls  and  lamps  hung  from  the 
ceilings,  porcelain  flower-vases,  etc.  Carpets  are  rare, 
fire-places  lacking;  the  kitchen,  to  avoid  heat,  is 
separate  from  the  dwelling.  The  heavy  tiles  formerly 
used  in  roofing  have  been  replaced  by  galvanized  iron. 


404  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

as  lighter  and  less  dangerous  in  the  event  of  an  earth- 
quake, a  possibihty  always  to  be  considered.  Even  in 
the  night  attire  the  earthquake  is  kept  in  view,  people 
seeking  their  couches  with  sufficient  clothing  to  enable 
them  to  make  a  presentable  appearance  in  the  street, 
if  aroused  and  forced  to  flee  by  a  midnight  shake. 

The  Philippine  bed  is  an  old-fashioned,  imposing 
structure,  with  its  four  high  posts  and  substantial 
frame.  The  modern  springs  are  replaced  by  a  net- 
work of  cane,  woven  as  in  chair-seats.  Lace  curtains 
and  mosquito  netting  depend  from  above.  The  bed 
is  composed  of  a  thin  sleeping-mat,  with  a  sheet  or 
two,  pillow,  and  bolster,  the  latter  being  used  to  sup- 
port the  body,  not  the  head,  and  to  relieve  the  hard- 
ness of  the  mat. 

The  native  houses  dififer  essentially  from  those  of 
the  Europeans.  The  old  Malay  idea  of  living  over 
water,  still  practised  by  the  Moros,  appears  in  dwell- 
ings erected  on  hard  ground,  the  house  resting  on  a 
number  of  strong  piles  set  in  the  ground,  which  lift 
it  from  five  to  ten  feet  into  the  air.  The  floor  is  made 
of  strips  of  bamboo,  their  rounded  sides  turned  up- 
ward and  wide  cracks  between  them.  Bamboo  also 
forms  the  framework,  tied  together  with  rattan,  not  a 
nail  or  a  peg  being  used.  The  sides  are  made  of  split 
bamboo,  beaten  flat  in  its  green  state,  or  more  com- 
monly of  the  stout  leaves  of  the  nipa  palm,  which  are 
also  employed  for  the  roof.  Swinging  shades,  which 
can  be  kept  open  during  the  day,  answer  for  windows. 
To  enter  the  door  a  ladder  must  be  used.  A  single 
room  often  answers  all  the  purposes  of  the  house- 
hold, those  of  cooking,  eating,  and  sleeping,  a  heap 
of  earth  in  one  corner  serving  to  build  the  fire  on  for 


CENTRES   OF    POPULATION.  405 

cooking,  while  the  smoke  is  left  to  escape  as  it  may. 
In  the  better  dwellings  there  is  a  kitchen  partitioned 
off  and  two  or  more  other  rooms. 

The  streets  of  Manila  are  sadly  lacking  in  the  req- 
uisites of  a  modern  city,  being  either  unpaved  or  with 
a  weak  excuse  for  paving.  Drainage  is  as  sadly 
needed  as  paving,  there  being  no  satisfactory  system 
of  sewerage.  The  low-lying  city  is  traversed  by  canals 
radiating  from  the  Pasig  River,  and  into  these  the  lilth 
of  the  city,  where  not  heaped  about  the  houses,  is 
thrown  or  is  washed  by  the  rains.  In  the  suburb  of 
Tondo  the  site  is  so  low  as  to  prevent  a  free  fllow  of 
the  surface  water,  which  gathers  in  stagnant  pools 
under  the  huts  during  the  rains.  With  the  dry  season 
comes  the  natural  result,  ill-smelling  black  mud  and 
fever.  There  is,  however,  a  good  supply  of  wholesome 
water  for  drinking  and  cooking,  the  city  being  pro- 
vided with  a  system  of  water-works.  The  water  is 
brought  from  Santolin,  on  the  Pasig  River.  There  are 
fountains  at  convenient  places  for  the  use  of  the  poor. 

There  are  two  lines  of  street-cars,  one  following  the 
Escolto,  the  principal  business  street,  and  extending 
out  through  the  residence  part  of  the  city;  the  other 
following  Rosario  Street,  reaching  the  suburbs  in  one 
direction,  and  crossing  the  Puenta  de  Espana  to  old 
Manila  in  the  other.  Each  car  is  drawn  by  one  horse, 
and  its  approach  is  announced  by  the  sound  of  a 
small  tin  horn  blown  by  the  driver.  The  electric  light 
has  been  introduced  into  the  city  to  some  extent,  and 
the  telephone  is  also  in  use. 

Along  the  Escolto  are  numerous  Spanish  stores, 
and  some  kept  by  French,  German,  and  other  mer- 
chants.   They  are  well  supplied  with  European  goods, 


4o6  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

though  the  very  high  import  duties  under  the  Spanish 
administration  kept  these  at  a  costly  figure.  Some  of 
the  many  Chinese  shops  are  also  on  the  Escolto,  but 
the  most  of  them  are  on  neighboring  streets,  espe- 
cially the  Rosario,  which  they  line  from  end  to  end. 
They  ofifer  for  sale  a  surprising  variety  of  goods,  and 
the  streets  occupied  by  them  are  usually  thronged 
v^-ith  the  common  people  of  the  city,  though  white 
men  other  than  priests  and  friars  are  rarely  seen 
among  them. 

Here  one  meets  hosts  of  the  natives,  the  poor  and 
the  well-to-do,  mestizos  of  Spanish  and  Chinese  birth, 
sailors,  coolies,  and  all  classes,  of  varied  costume  and 
shades  of  complexion.  The  Chinese  are  abundantly 
represented,  each  shop  having  several  of  them,  while 
outside  the  doors  may  be  seen  their  native  wives  and 
half-breed  children,  the  boys  frequently  in  Chinese 
dress,  the  girls  all  wearing  the  native  costume.  Na- 
tive merchants  usually  do  their  vending  in  the  streets, 
walking  about  or  resting  in  the  doorways,  with  fruit, 
flowers,  and  other  articles  for  sale.  The  women  are 
notably  erect  in  attitude,  due  to  the  custom  of  carry- 
ing articles  balanced  on  their  heads.  The  hotels  of 
the  city  have  hitherto  been  nothing  to  boast  of,  but 
they  are  improving,  and  are  sure  to  attain  a  marked 
development  under  American  control. 

Old  Manila  and  Binondo  do  not  constitute  the 
whole  city.  There  are  numerous  suburbs  or  wards, 
fifteen  or  twenty  in  number,  extending  in  all  direc- 
tions around  the  city.  Tondo  lies  on  the  bay.  adjoin- 
ing Binondo.  It  is  principally  inhabited  by  natives, 
over  30,000  iu  number,  and,  owing  to  its  combustible 
material,  is  frequently  the  scene  of  destructive  fires. 


CENTRES  OF  POPULATION.  407 

From  this  quarter  comes  most  of  the  milk  used  in  the 
capital,  and  it  has  some  small  manufactures. 

Two  miles  up  the  north  bank  of  the  river  lies  San 
Miguel,  a  residence  quarter  for  Europeans,  especially 
Spaniards.  Santa  Cruz  has  over  11,000  inhabitants, 
many  of  them  merchants.  Santa  Ana  is  a  favorite 
place  of  residence  for  merchants;  Pasay  is  noted  for 
its  cultivation  of  the  betel;  and  La  Ermita  and  other 
villages  are  centres  of  production  of  the  exquisite 
pifia  handkerchiefs,  which  command  very  high  prices. 
Malate  is  the  seat  of  many  public  offices,  and  the 
women  here  are  employed  in  ornamenting  slippers 
with  gold  and  silver  embroidery. 

Of  the  suburbs  of  Manila,  one  of  the  most  interest- 
ing is  Cavite,  on  the  bay  shore  several  miles  south  of 
the  walls  of  Old  Manila,  the  seat  of  the  arsenal  and 
navy-yard  and  the  port  of  refuge  of  large  vessels  in 
the  event  of  stormy  weather.  It  contains  some  hand- 
some residences  and  fine  shops,  a  theatre,  several 
cafes,  and  a  large  cathedral  of  old  date.  A  fire  in  1754 
destroyed  most  of  the  town,  since  which  date  stone 
and  brick  have  replaced  wood  as  building  materials. 
Its  history  is  of  interest,  it  being  deemed  the  key  to 
the  capital,  and  as  such  taken  by  the  British  in  1763. 
It  was  the  seat  of  the  most  formidable  rebellion  of  the 
natives  before  1896,  that  of  1872,  an  outbreak  due  to 
hatred  of  the  friars,  which  ended  disastrously  for  the 
insurgents.  But  its  most  famous  event  was  the  attack 
of  Commodore  Dewey's  squadron  upon  the  Spanish 
fleet,  drawn  up  across  the  mouth  of  Bakor  Bay,  on 
whose  shores  Cavite  is  situated.  Nothing  needs  to  be 
said  concerning  this  striking  engagement.  It  has  be- 
come an  essential  fact  in  American  history. 


4o8  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

To  return  to  the  habits  of  the  Manila  people,  it 
may  be  said  of  the  foreign  residents  that  the  use  of 
the  small  but  sturdy  Philippine  horse  is  almost  uni- 
versal. As  a  rule,  only  the  natives  walk;  everybody 
else  rides;  carriages  throng  the  principal  streets,  or 
horsemen  dash  along,  the  little  but  spirited  animals 
being  capable  of  carrying  a  heavy  rider  and  of  racing 
at  an  excellent  rate  of  speed.  Thousands  of  carriages 
traverse  the  Escolto  daily,  giving  this  street  a  highly 
animated  appearance. 

Only  on  three  days  in  the  year  are  the  ponies  given 
full  rest  from  their  labors.  These  are  Holy  Wednes- 
day and  Thursday  and  Good  Friday,  on  which  days 
the  use  of  carriages  is  permitted  only  to  the  arch- 
bishop and  the  doctors,  the  church-bells  cease  their 
endless  jangling,  and  silence  and  solemnity  prevail. 
The  people  are  held  in  the  leash,  impatiently  awaiting 
the  end  of  the  fast.  On  the  first  stroke  of  the  bell 
announcing  their  release  there  is  a  rush  to  and  fro, 
horses  and  vehicles  suddenly  appear  in  multitudes, 
and  the  streets  resound  again  with  the  clamorous  cries 
of  the  native  venders. 

Among  the  excitements  of  Manila  under  Spanish 
rule  were  the  religious  processions,  of  which  each  year 
furnished  occasion  for  several,  and  which  were  cele- 
brated with  the  utmost  pomp  and  display  and  the 
greatest  freedom  of  merry-making,  dances,  songs, 
music,  fireworks,  cock-fighting  displays,  and  other 
entertainments  giving  liveliness  to  the  occasion.  The 
general  character  of  these  processions  we  have  already 
described. 

Among  the  features  of  the  city  may  be  mentioned 
the   numerous    wayside    native   restaurants,    most    of 


CENTRES   OF    POPULATION.  409 

them  primitive  in  character,  with  little  more  than  rice 
and  fruits  for  sale,  which  are  offered  for  a  mere  pit- 
tance. For  two  cents  a  native  can  satisfy  his  appetite, 
and  to  these  establishments  the  multitude  of  cigar- 
makers  and  other  workmen  hasten  at  noon  for  a  rapid 
lunch.  They  are  poor,  indeed,  who  need  go  hungry 
in  Manila. 

Other  interesting  features  of  the  streets  are  the 
water-girls,  with  great  rude  jars  balanced  upon  their 
heads,  and  the  pedlers  of  milk  or  cocoa.  A  native 
funeral  is  a  peculiar  spectacle,  the  hearse  a  rude 
wagon  drawn  by  white  horses,  preceded  by  a  brass 
band  playing  a  brisk  marching  air  and  followed  by  a 
long  line  of  carriages.  The  heat  of  the  climate  renders 
it  necessary  to  have  the  funeral,  as  a  general  rule,  on 
the  day  of  the  death.  The  bodies  of  the  well-to-do  are 
deposited  in  a  vault  in  the  church  as  long  as  the  privi- 
lege is  paid  for,  but  the  remains  are  finally  dumped 
unceremoniously  into  a  huge  pit  in  the  rear,  into 
which  the  bodies  of  the  poor  go  at  once.  All,  finally, 
come  to  the  pit. 

There  are  several  theatres  in  Manila,  but  they  are 
very  poor  concerns.  The  opera  is  the  most  popular 
form  of  amusement,  and  is  thronged  when  foreign 
celebrities  visit  the  city.  The  Filipinos  are  especially 
fond  of  theatrical  entertainments,  and  rarely  fail  to  be 
present  in  force  when  any  play  of  interest  is  oflfered. 
Everybody  smokes  at  the  theatre,  from  the  fashion- 
able ladies  and  gentlemen  in  the  boxes  to  the  gallery 
gods  above.  Pretty  mestizo  girls  between  the  acts 
offer  fragrant  flowers  for  sale.  A  theatre  night,  when 
a  good  company  has  been  secured,  is  one  of  the  gayest 
and  most  popular  events  known  to  Manila. 


4IO  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

One  thing  remains  to  be  said  of  this  island  capital: 
it  is,  in  its  way,  the  Venice  of  the  East.  The  city  lies 
at  a  considerably  lower  level  than  the  lake  which  feeds 
the  stream,  and  is  traversed  by  numerous  creeks  and 
canals,  which  in  the  wet  season  are  flooded  with  water 
from  the  overfull  Pasig.  At  that  period  the  water 
overflows  the  low-lying  suburbs,  washing  beneath  the 
pile-borne  native  houses,  and  boats  ply  in  multitudes 
through  the  streets,  which  are  for  the  time  being  con- 
verted into  water-channels. 

ILOILO. 

Iloilo,  the  chief  city  on  the  island  of  Panay,  has 
recently  risen  in  commercial  importance  to  the  posi- 
tion of  the  second  city  of  the  archipelago,  having 
passed  Cebu,  which  formerly  occupied  that  position. 
The  commerce  of  the  central  Philippines  is  rapidly 
centring  in  this  place.  It  is  by  no  means  an  attrac- 
tive city,  the  principal  part  of  it  standing  on  low. 
yielding  ground,  formerly  marsh  land,  and  the  whole 
town  being  overflowed  during  the  spring  tides.  It 
partly  fronts  the  sea,  partly  lies  on  the  left  bank  of  a 
creek.  Its  population  is  not  large,  the  narrow  tongue 
of  land  on  which  it  is  chiefly  built  forbidding  exten- 
sion. Several  towns  in  its  close  vicinity,  Jaro,  Molo, 
and  Oton,  surpass  it  in  population,  having  from  15,000 
to  over  30.000  each. 

The  streets  are  unpaved.  and  are  either  unpleasantly 
dusty  or  muddy,  as  the  dry  or  wet  season  prevails. 
There  are  a  few  good  shops  and  some  attractive  resi- 
dences, but  the  public  square,  once  handsomely  laid 
out,  has  been  sadly  neglected;  there  are  no  places  of 
amusement,  and  the  whole  town  sadly  needs  a  more 


CENTRES  OF    POPULATION.  411 

progressive  element.  The  traders  are  mostly  Chinese 
mestizos,  many  of  whom  are  wealthy. 

The  commercial  interests  are  conducted  mainly  by 
English  and  German  firms,  and  consist  principally  in 
the  exportation  of  sugar,  in  which  Iloilo  exceeds  Ma- 
nila. The  sapan-wood  of  Negros  and  Panay  is  also 
shipped  from  this  port.  The  surrounding  country  is 
very  fertile  and  is  widely  cultivated,  its  products  in- 
cluding tobacco  and  rice  in  addition  to  sugar.  But 
the  poor  facilities  for  transportation  from  the  interior 
interfere  seriously  with  the  development  of  the  port. 

Iloilo  enjoys  a  more  agreeable  climate  than  Manila. 
This  is  due  to  the  neighboring  island  of  Guimaras, 
which  is  much  higher  than  the  coast  region  of  Panay, 
so  that  it  forms  a  sort  of  funnel,  through  which  draws 
a  constant  breeze,  adding  very  acceptably  to  the  cool- 
ness and  healthfulness  of  the  town. 

CEBU. 

Cebu,  the  third  centre  of  Philippine  commerce,  is 
on  the  east  coast  of  the  island  of  Cebu  or  Zebu,  as 
variously  spelled.  It  is  a  clean,  well-built  town,  with 
the  unusual  distinction  in  the  Philippines  of  having 
good  carriage  roads  leading  from  it.  How  far  they 
continue  good  is  another  matter.  It  has  a  population 
of  something  over  10,000,  and  is  the  seat  of  numerous 
churches,  it  being  the  see  of  a  bishop.  In  addition  to 
the  cathedral,  there  are  several  churches  of  some  in- 
terest, that  of  Santo  Nino  de  Cebu  being  notable  as 
built  in  honor  of  the  most  ancient  and  famous  of  the 
Philippine  religious  images.  The  Santo  Nifio  dates 
from  1565,  the  year  of  origin  of  the  city,  it  being 
found  on  the  island  shore  by  a  soldier,  and  decided 


412  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

to  be  an  image  of  the  Christ  Child  fallen  from  heaven. 
It  is,  in  consequence,  very  highly  venerated;  a  festival 
in  its  honor  being  held  on  January  20,  when  the  image 
is  exhibited,  and  pilgrims  gather  from  all  quarters  to 
see  it.  It  is  of  ebony,  about  fifteen  inches  high,  and  is 
half  covered  with  silver  trinkets. 

Cebu  was  the  capital  of  the  Philippines  from  1565 
to  1 571,  and  up  to  1759  had  a  municipal  government. 
This  was  then  abolished,  as  the  place  possessed  but 
one  Spaniard  capable  of  acting  as  a  city  councillor, 
while  the  mayor  had  been  turned  out  of  office  for  the 
not  unusual  crime  of  cruelty.  The  government  was 
restored  in  1890.  As  a  commercial  centre  Cebu  is  the 
leading  place  for  the  exportation  of  hemp,  and  also 
ships  much  sugar,  most  of  which  comes  from  the 
plantations  of  Leyte,  Camaguin,  and  Mindanao.  The 
character  of  the  harbor  we  have  already  described. 


OTHER  TOWNS. 

The  remaining  towns  call  for  no  extended  descrip- 
tion. There  are  several  hundred  in  all,  including  vil- 
lages, but  only  a  few  of  them  are  of  any  importance. 
Zamboango,  the  leading  town  of  Mindanao,  on  its 
southwest  extremity,  is  one  of  the  oldest  Spanish  set- 
tlements, having  originally  been  taken  and  fortified  as 
a  convenient  base  of  operations  against  the  Moro 
pirates  of  Sulu.  The  old  stone  fort,  built  as  a  place  of 
shelter  for  the  inhabitants  if  attacked,  still  stands.  The 
town  is  spacfous  and  is  kept  in  a  respectable  state  of 
cleanliness.  Its  pier  extends  out  to  water  of  some 
depth,  but  not  sufificient  for  large  vessels,  which  have 
to  lie  well  off  shore.    Many  of  the  inhabitants  appear 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  413 

to  be  the   descendants   of  slaves   escaped   from   the 
Moros. 

Sulu,  once  the  capital  of  the  Moros,  and  the  central 
seat  of  their  piratical  raids,  has  of  recent  years  been 
held  by  a  Spanish  garrison,  whom  the  truculent  in- 
habitants of  the  island  have  not  left  in  peace.  Under 
the  famous  General  Arolas  this  place  v^as  made  a 
spectacle  of  "  how  to  do  it"  for  the  Philippine  Span- 
iards. He  found  it  a  pest-hole  and  converted  it  into 
a  place  of  unusual  healthfulness.  He  built  a  splendid 
market,  constructed  water-works,  erected  a  hospital, 
and  established  a  free-school  system.  The  fortifica- 
tions were  strengthened  by  the  Moros  themselves, 
they  being  made  prisoners  and  compelled  to  work  on 
the  ramparts.  Since  the  return  of  this  energetic  gov- 
ernor to  Spain,  the  Moros,  long  cowed  by  his  severity, 
have  regained  much  of  their  old  combativeness  and 
made  some  virulent  attacks  upon  the  Spaniards. 

Capiz,  on  the  north  coast  of  Panay,  is  a  town  of 
some  25,000  inhabitants,  seated  in  the  midst  of  a  very 
productive  district,  its  inhabitants  being  fairly  well  to 
do.  They  include  about  100  Spaniards  and  a  large 
number  of  Spanish  mestizos,  who  are  wealthy  and  in- 
fluential. Large  quantities  of  alcohol,  of  high  grade 
of  purity,  are  made  in  its  vicinity  from  the  sap  of  the 
nipa  palm. 

Dumaguete,  on  Negros  Island,  is  a  town  of  about 
8000  inhabitants,  few  of  them  white.  The  shops  are 
kept  by  Chinese.  It  is  in  a  fertile  district,  the  people 
are  prosperous,  and  the  public  buildings  large  and 
showy.  Bacolod  is  the  capital  of  this  island,  and  con- 
tains, in  addition  to  the  church  and  government  house, 
some  handsome  residences.     It  is  a  coast-town,  but 


414  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

the  water  is  shallow  and  steamers  cannot  approach 
within  a  half  mile.  Calapan  is  the  capital  of  Mindoro, 
which  is  about  all  that  need  be  said  concerning  it. 
It  lies  in  a  region  of  very  heavy  rainfall,  and  has  no 
anchorage,  the  surf  often  running  so  heavily  that 
steamers  cannot  even  land  the  mails. 

Luzon,  the  most  thickly  populated  island,  contains 
a  number  of  towns  in  addition  to  those  already  men- 
tioned. Majajay,  not  far  distant  from  Manila,  is  a 
picturesque  mountain  town,  with  church  and  convent 
and  many  handsome  residences.  It  is  surrounded  by 
magnificent  scenery,  its  chief  attraction  being  the 
waterfall  of  Botocan,  600  feet  high  and  60  feet  wide. 
Not  far  distant,  but  1000  feet  higher,  stands  Lugbang. 
crossed  by  several  canals  and  surrounded  by  extensive 
rice  fields. 

Lipa,  the  capital  of  Batangas  province,  is  a  centre 
of  the  coffee  trade.  Many  wealthy  planters  live  in  the 
vicinity,  and  most  of  its  houses  are  three  stories  high. 
Its  church  and  convent  are  notable  buildings.  Taal. 
formerly  near  the  volcano  of  that  name,  was  destroyed 
by  the  earthquake  of  1754,  and  is  now  built  in  a  hill 
region,  among  sugar  plantations  and  great  forests.  It 
has  a  considerable  trade,  by  way  of  the  Pasig  River, 
with  Manila,  and  its  streets  are  lined  with  modern 
shops  and  spacious  residences.  With  its  suburbs  it 
has  a  population  of  50.000. 

The  principal  towns  of  the  north  are  Ilagan,  the 
capital  of  the  tobacco-raising  province  of  Isabella, 
with  between  10,000  and  15,000  inhabitants,  and 
Aparri,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Cag^yan  River,  with 
20,000  population  and  considerable  trade.  It  has 
some  good  streets  and  many  handsome  houses. 


CENTRES   OF   POPULATION.  415 

Other  towns  of  some  importance  are  Batangas, 
capital  of  Batangas  province;  Santa  Cruz,  capital  of 
Laguna  province;  Silan,  noted  for  its  religious  feasts 
and  fairs;  Carmona,  Vifian,  Tayabas,  and  Calamba. 
Near  the  last  is  the  town  of  Los  Bafios,  at  which  are 
hot  springs,  credited  with  value  in  rheumatic  com- 
plaints. This  place  was  once  a  popular  resort,  and 
might  be  made  so  again.  A  few  miles  distant,  at  an 
elevation  of  1200  feet,  is  the  boiling  lake  of  Natungos, 
also  possessed  of  excellent  curative  properties.  In 
the  province  of  Albay,  near  the  volcano  of  Mayon, 
are  sulphur  springs  which  are  celebrated  for  their 
curative  properties.  Here  is  an  excellent  location  for 
a  sanatorium,  awaiting  some  enterprising  American. 


VL  THE  PEOPLE  OF  THE  PHILIPPINES. 

CHARACTER  OF  THE  NATIVES. 

The  Malay  race,  wherever  found,  possesses  certain 
strongly  marked  characteristics,  all  of  which  appear 
in  the  character  of  the  Filipinos.  The  native  is  a 
born  stoic,  a  natural  fatalist:  his  stoicism  visible  in  his 
impassive  demeanor  and  imperturbable  bearing-,  his 
fatalism  in  his  coolness  when  exposed  to  danger,  and 
his  daring  in  the  face  of  overwhelming  odds.  Well 
led,  he  makes  a  good  soldier,  though  he  is  averse  to 
discipline.  General  Gordon  speaks  thus  of  the  Philip- 
pine troops  who  formed  part  of  his  forces  in  the  China 
war: 

"  They  are  a  fine,  sturdy  body  of  fellows,  faithful 
and  long-suffering,  bearing  hardships  without  mur- 
murs, plucky  and  never  losing  heart  in  defeat,  and 
considerably  superior  to  the  Japanese." 

As  sailors  they  have  no  superior,  the  Filipinos  dis- 
playing that  instinctive  love  of  the  water  and  inclina- 
tion for  a  sea-life  which  we  have  already  seen  in  the 
Hawaiians,  and  which  seem  to  belong  to  the  Malay 
blood.  For  centuries  past  the  wilder  spirits  of  the 
race  have  made  piracy  their  occupation,  pursuing  this 
lawless  avocation  with  a  reckless  daring  and  a  blood- 
thirsty cruelty  that  long  made  them  the  terror  of  the 
Eastern  seas.  These  piratical  incursions  continued, 
in  the  case  of  the  Moros,  until  within  comparatively  a 
few  years. 
416 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      417 

But  the  cruelty  of  the  pirates  should  not  be  charged 
against  the  race  as  a  whole,  any  more  than  we  should 
consider  the  cruelty  of  the  West  Indian  buccaneers  a 
general  characteristic  of  Europeans.  These  pirates 
were  the  outlaws  of  their  race,  preying  upon  their  own 
peaceful  countrymen,  and  visiting  upon  the  Spaniards 
an  old  debt  of  vengeance. 

The  natives  are  as  thorough  water-dogs  as  the 
native  Hawaiians.  They  are  excellent  swimmers,  and 
seem  absolutely  devoid  of  fear  in  the  boiling  surf,  in 
which  they  disport  themselves — men,  women,  and 
children — with  the  wild  delight  and  fearlessness  of  the 
Hawaiian  surf-riders.  Many  of  them  swim  with  ease 
for  miles,  and  groups  of  naked  men  do  not  hesitate  to 
plunge,  dagger  in  hand,  among  a  shoal  of  sharks, 
which  dangerous  animals  they  attack  with  a  fierceness, 
alertness,  and  skill  that  always  bring  victory  to  the 
natives  and  death  to  the  sharks.  As  for  the  boys,  they 
are  as  alert  and  skilful  as  those  of  the  harbor  of  Hono- 
lulu, diving  thirty  or  forty  feet  for  pennies  flung  into 
the  waves,  and  rarely  failing  to  bring  them  up. 

Calm  and  impassive  as  is  the  native,  he  is  not  secre- 
tive, but  is  more  apt  to  be  loquacious.  While  innately 
polite,  and  respectful  to  superiors,  he  is  curious  and 
inquisitive,  being  possessed  of  an  eager  thirst  for  in- 
formation. He  has  the  faults  of  the  half-civilized, — 
improvidence  and  shiftlessness,  and  the  indolence  that 
seems  characteristic  of  all  tropical  peoples,  and  is 
an  almost  necessary  result  of  the  enervating  climate. 
The  most  energetic  Europeans  involuntarily  yield  to 
'it  after  a  few  years,  and  it  seems  inherent  in  those 
born  to  the  situation. 

The  Filipino  is  a  philosopher.  He  works  when  he 
27 


4i8  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

must,  but  takes  every  opportunity  to  rest.  Nature 
does  most  of  his  work,  and  he  has  Httle  occasion  for 
active  exercise,  so  that  most  of  his  time  is  his  own. 
His  needs  are  few  and  easily  satisfied,  and  the  fertile 
soil,  warm  sun,  and  moist  atmosphere  do  for  him  what 
only  hard  work  can  do  for  the  farmer  of  the  colder 
zones.  Laborers  on  the  plantations,  therefore,  are  not 
to  be  easily  procured,  or  kept  when  obtained;  a  fact 
which  acts  as  a  serious  detriment  to  plantation  en- 
terprises in  the  Philippines.  Slaves  are  not  to  be 
had,  and  the  native  laborer  cannot  be  trusted.  He  is 
unwilling  to  work  without  pay  in  advance,  and  after 
receiving  his  money  is  apt  to  refuse  to  work.  The 
employer  has  no  remedy  but  through  the  law,  which, 
under  the  Spanish  system,  was  so  dilatory  and  expen- 
sive that  the  cure  often  proved  worse  than  the  disease. 
Yet  the  difficulty  has  been  partly  a  result  of  the  situa- 
tion. Thousands  of  natives  work  in  the  factories  of 
Manila,  and  hundreds  of  thousands  in  the  districts 
where  just  and  humane  business  methods  prevail. 
The  trouble  in  procuring  laborers  has  doubtless  been 
due  as  much  to  Spanish  mismanagement  as  to  Malay 
indolence  and  lack  of  good  faith. 

Yet  the  Filipino  has  a  reason  for  his  indolence 
whose  force  all  must  admit.  One  native  is  quoted  by 
Worcester  as  having  said  to  his  employer,  whose  ser- 
vice he  had  decided  to  quit.  "  Seiior.  if  you  were  back 
at  your  home  in  Andalusia,  living  in  a  house  as  fine  as 
any  in  the  province;  if  your  food  and  clothing  were 
not  only  as  good  as  any  of  your  neighbors  could 
boast,  but  were  all  that  you  yourself  desired;  if  you 
had  money  enough  for  all  present  and  future  wants- 
would  vou  turn  vour  back  up  to  a  sun  as  hot  as  this 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES.      419 

and  work?"  Could  there  be  better  logic?  If  there 
is  nothing  worth  working  for,  why  work  in  such  a 
climate? 

The  Filipino  morally  is  a  curious  compound.  While 
exceptionally  kind  and  gentle  in  his  home  relations, 
he  is,  like  partly  civilized  peoples  in  general,  apt  to  be 
cruel  to  his  foes.  Passionate  when  roused,  he  can  be 
wrought  up  by  injustice  and  oppression  to  a  wild 
frenzy,  in  which,  reckless  of  life  and  craving  only  ven- 
geance, he  runs  amuck  through  crowded  streets,  kill- 
ing indiscriminately  all  he  meets  until  slain  himself. 
Fortunately,  these  frenzied  outbursts  of  the  blood- 
thirst  are  of  rare  occurrence.  They  are  similar  in 
character  to  the  outbreaks  of  murderous  religious 
fanaticism  among  the  Moros,  already  described. 

At  home  the  Filipino  is  a  model.  Family  affection 
is  strong  in  his  nature,  and  no  people  could  be  fonder 
of  or  kinder  to  their  children,  who,  as  a  rule,  are  re- 
spectful and  well-behaved.  The  noisy  and  disrespect- 
ful children  of  American  and  European  cities  are  un- 
known in  Philippine  villages.  The  old  people  are 
venerated  and  tenderly  cared  for,  while  poor  relatives 
may  be  seen  in  many  households,  as  kindly  welcomed 
as  if  members  of  the  family.  Indeed,  the  Filipino  is 
natively  hospitable.  Guests  are  always  welcomed,  and 
the  better  class  embrace  every  opportunity  to  enter- 
tain their  neighbors  or  casual  visitors. 

The  character  of  the  people  is  thus  succinctly 
summed  up  by  a  former  British  consul  at  Manila,  his 
statement  being  quoted  and  endorsed  by  the  Ameri- 
can traveller,  Dean  C.  Worcester: 

'■  Rarely  is  an  intertropical  people  a  satisfactory  one 
to  eye  or  mind.    But  this  cannot  be  said  of  the  Philip- 


420  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

pine  Malay,  who,  in  bodily  formation  and  mental  char- 
acteristics alike,  may  fairly  claim  a  place,  not  among 
the  middle  ones  merely,  but  among  the  higher  names 
inscribed  upon  the  world's  national  scale.  He  is  char- 
acterized by  a  concentrated,  never-absent  self-respect; 
'an  habitual  self-restraint  in  w^ord  and  deed,  very  rarely 
broken,  except  when  extreme  provocation  induces  the 
transitory  but  fatal  frenzy  known  as  '  amuck ;'  an  in- 
bred courtesy,  equally  dififused  through  all  classes, 
high  or  low;  by  unfailing  decorum,  prudence,  caution, 
quiet,  cheerfulness,  ready  hospitality,  and  a  correct 
though  not  inventive  taste.  His  family  is  a  pleasing 
sight — much  subordination  and  little  constraint;  uni- 
son in  gradation;  liberty,  not  license;  orderly  chil- 
dren, respected  parents;  women  subject  but  not  op- 
pressed; men  ruling  but  not  despotic;  reverence  with 
kindness,  obedience  in  affection, — these  form  a  lovable 
picture  by  no  means  rare  in  the  villages  of  the  eastern 
isles." 

One  hospitable  custom  is  common  in  the  interior. 
Little  bamboo  frames  may  be  seen  supported  by  a  post 
or  projecting  from  a  window,  on  which,  covered  with 
plantain  leaves,  is  placed  a  supply  of  food  or  fruits,  of 
W'hich  any  passing  traveller  is  free  to  partake,  paying 
something  if  able,  but  nothing  if  poor.  The  bounty  is 
free  alike  to  those  able  and  those  unable  to  pay. 

As  a  rule,  the  natives  are  superstitious  and  very 
credulous,  these  qualities  having  been  developed  and 
encouraged  in  them  by  300  years  of  priestly  control. 
The  educated  native,  how^ever,  is  an  apt  convert  to 
the  conclusions  of  modern  research,  as  is  attested  by 
numerous  instances  of  men  of  talent  and  ability. 

The  Filipino  is  rarely  humorous  and  seldom  witty. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      421 

Though  passionate  when  roused,  he  is  slow  to  anger; 
but  if  unjustly  punished,  he  will  treasure  up  the  wrong 
for  years,  until  an  opportunity  for  revenge  is  pre- 
sented. Courageous  by  nature,  he  despises  cowardice 
and  pusillanimity,  and  in  consequence  cordially  dis- 
likes the  meek  Chinaman,  who  is  ready  to  pocket  any 
insult  in  his  thirst  for  gain.  On  the  contrary,  he  has 
great  esteem  for  the  European,  in  whom  he  recognizes 
qualities  similar  to  his  own,  and  whom  he  will  follow 
into  any  danger.  While  easily  awed  by  a  show  of 
force,  he  is  best  ruled  by  mild  measures  based  upon 
justice.  He  lacks  ambition,  unless  to  make  a  fine  dis- 
play in  a  procession  or  other  social  event;  and  is  sober, 
patient,  and  always  clean,  being  as  fond  of  bathing  as 
the  Hawaiians.  Men  and  women  bathe  in  the  same 
place,  partly  clothed.  Every  village  has  its  bath, 
where  possible;  and  if  water  is  lacking  it  will  be  car- 
ried from  a  considerable  distance,  through  the  desire 
to  keep  clean. 

The  native,  indeed,  seems  half  amphibious,  passing 
much  of  his  time  in  the  water.  He  appears  insensible 
alike  to  the  burning  sun  and  the  drenching  rain,  and 
generally  has  good  health,  his  medicines  being  herbs 
whose  usefulness  long  experience  has  proved.  It  has 
been  said  of  him  that  he  is  more  of  a  quadruped  than  a 
biped,  his  large  hands  and  pliant  toes  enabling  him  to 
climb  trees  easily,  and  perform  other  active  functions 
not  easy  to  Europeans. 

In  the  words  of  Sir  John  Bowring:  "  He  receives 
no  favors,  and  cannot,  therefore,  be  ungrateful;  has 
little  ambition,  and  therefore  little  disquiet;  few  wants, 
and  hence  is  neither  jealous  nor  envious;  does  not 
concern  himself  with  the  affairs  of  his  neighbor,  nor 


422  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

indeed  does  he  pay  much  regard  to  his  own.  His 
master  vice  is  idleness,  which  is  his  feHcity 

"He  uses  no  soap  to  wash,  no  razor  to  shave;  the 
river  is  his  bathing-place,  and  he  pulls  out  the  hairs 
in  his  face  with  the  assistance  of  a  sharp  shell;  he 
wants  no  clock  to  tell  him  of  the  flight  of  time,  and  no 
table,  nor  chairs,  nor  plates,  nor  cutlery,  to  assist  him 
at  his  meals;  a  hacha,  or  large  knife,  and  bag  are  gen- 
erally hung  at  his  waist;  he  thinks  no  music  equal  to 
the  crowing  of  his  cock,  and  holds  a  shoe  to  be  as 
superfluous  as  a  glove  or  a  neck-collar." 

One  striking  characteristic  of  the  Filipino  we  may 
extract  from  the  recent  work  of  Ramon  Lala,  himself 
of  native  birth :  "  As  a  result  of  the  stoicism  of  the 
native  character,  he  never  bewails  a  misfortune  and 
has  no  fear  of  death.  When  anything  happens,  he 
merely  says,  '  It  is  fate,'  and  calmly  goes  about  his 
business  as  if  nothing  had  happened.  Europeans  often 
seem  to  notice  in  them  what  they  deem  a  lack  of  sym- 
pathy for  the  misfortunes  of  others;  but  it  is  not  this 
so  much  as  resignation  to  the  inevitable.  This,  it 
must  be  confessed,  saves  them  many  a  bitter  pang. 
The  educated  native,  however,  impregnated  with  the 
bitter  philosophy  of  the  civilized  world,  is  by  no  means 
so  imperturbable.  While  more  keenly  alive  to  the  suf- 
ferings of  others,  he  is  also  more  sensitive  to  his  own 
sorrows.  After  all,  whether  he  is  any  happier  for  his 
wisdom  is  a  question." 

The  Filipino  enjoys  litigation  far  too  much  for  his 
own  good,  and  is  always  ready  to  go  to  law.  He  has 
some  degree  of  artistic  taste,  and  there  are  several 
examples  of  painters  of  marked  talent,  while  consider- 
able literary  ability  has  been  shown  by  educated  na- 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      423 

tives.  It  is  in  music,  however,  that  he  seems  most 
likely  to  make  his  mark.  Every  village  has  its  orches- 
tra, and  music  is  the  highest  delight  of  the  natives, 
who  will  listen  entranced  for  hours  together  to  the 
playing  of  their  bands. 

To  quote  again  from  Lala:  "All  the  people  are 
born  musicians;  even  little  boys  and  girls  of  five  or 
six  years  of  age  play  the  harp,  the  guitar,  or  the 
piano  as  if  by  instinct;  while  their  elders  show  a  pro- 
ficiency that,  when  their  opportunities  are  considered, 
is  truly  astonishing." 

DWELLINGS,  FOOD,  AND  DRESS. 

We  have  already  described  the  house  of  the  native 
laborer  of  Manila.  The  dwellings  of  the  poorer  peo- 
ple in  the  rural  districts  are  closely  similar,  structures 
of  bamboo  thatched  with  palm,  and  raised  on  posts 
five  or  six  feet  from  the  ground.  The  eaves  are  broad, 
and  the  window  openings,  destitute  of  glass  or  shell, 
as  in  the  better  houses,  have  palm-leaf  shutters  hung 
at  the  top  and  propped  open  during  the  day.  These 
shed  the  rain  and  keep  out  the  sun.  At  night  they  are 
tightly  closed.  The  house  has  usually  two  rooms,  its 
furniture  consisting  of  sleeping-mats,  pillows,  and  per- 
haps a  few  wicker  stools.  The  kitchen  utensils  are  of 
the  most  primitive  character,  the  stove  an  earthen 
afifair  like  a  brazier,  with  projecting  knuckles  to  hold 
the  cooking-vessel.  Sometimes  the  space  under  the 
house  is  enclosed  by  mats;  but  it  is  oftener  left  open, 
and  is  used  as  a  storehouse  for  the  water-jars  and 
wash-tubs,  the  latter  hollowed  out  of  a  flat  block  of 
wood.  The  house  is  usually  as  clean  and  tidy  as  con- 
stant scrubbing  and  care  can  keep  it. 


424  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

A  system  of  reconcentration,  somewhat  similar  to 
that  in  Cuba,,  was  practised  here  by  the  Spaniards 
throughout  the  districts  in  rebellion.  To  prevent  the 
native  peasantry  from  giving  aid  and  assistance  to  the 
rebels,  they  were  forced  to  leave  their  huts,  scattered 
widely  over  the  country,  and  to  assemble  in  large  vil- 
lages where  they  could  be  under  inspection  and  con- 
trol. Thus  we  find  great  groups  of  small,  cheap  huts, 
where  the  peasants  are  crowded  together  far  from 
their  tillage  grounds.  Their  domestic  arrangements 
are  of  the  simplest.  "  The  beds  of  the  Indians  are 
merely  mats,  on  which  the  whole  family  repose  in- 
discriminately. Here  they  smoke  their  cigars,  chew 
their  betel,  and  fall  asleep." 

The  custom  of  elevating  the  house  is  wide-spread 
throughout  the  archipelago.  The  Moros,  where  pos- 
sible, build  theirs  on  piles  in  shallow  water.  The  un- 
civilized Tagbanuas,  of  Palawan,  perch  their  small 
houses  high  in  the  air,  upon  lofty  bamboo  poles.  The 
more  savage  natives,  of  the  mountain  regions,  build 
mere  rude  shelters,  composed  of  poles  covered  with 
a  few  palm  leaves. 

The  more  prosperous  native  planter  possesses  a 
dwelling  superior  in  size  and  comfort  to  that  of  the 
poorer  peasant;  raised  like  his  above  the  ground,  but 
provided  with  sliding  windows  with  translucent  shell 
panes,  divided  into  a  number  of  rooms,  and  the  outer 
walls  painted  in  bright  colors  and  decorated  with  gro- 
tesque carvings.  It  has  more  furniture,  including 
chairs  and  table,  a  chandelier  with  globes  of  colored 
glass,  and  some  pictures  on  the  walls,  which  are 
covered  with  cloth  instead  of  plaster,  as  better  suited 
to  earthquake  shocks. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      425 

The  marked  cleanliness  of  the  people,  their  constant 
bathing,  washing,  and  scrubbing,  has  one  good  effect, 
they  are  much  less  annoyed  by  insect  pests  than  in 
other  tropical  countries.  Mosquitoes  are  the  most 
persistent,  and  they  seem  mild  as  compared  with  those 
of  many  other  localities.  Of  course,  insects  and  rep- 
tiles are  numerous;  but  many  of  those  which  infest 
the  houses  are  harmless,  and  the  little  lizards  w^hich 
one  sees  running  over  the  walls  are  engaged  in  the 
innocent  and  useful  exercise  of  catching  flies  and  mos- 
quitoes. 

Rice  is  the  ordinary  food  of  the  natives.  It  is  boiled 
for  half  an  hour,  and  capsicum,  or  chilly,  is  used  as  a 
condiment.  They  help  themselves  with  their  fingers 
out  of  a  large  dish,  or  sometimes  use  a  plantain  leaf 
for  a  plate.  Around  the  dish  are  sauces,  into  which 
they  dip  the  canin,  or  boiled  rice.  Fish,  sweet  potatoes, 
and  vegetables  add  some  variety  to  their  diet.  One 
writer  tells  us  that  "  They  are  great  consumers  of  fish, 
which  are  found  in  immense  abundance.  After  rains 
the  fields  and  marshes  and  ponds  are  full  of  them. 
Fish  two  palms  long  are  often  pulled  up  from  among 
the  paddy  [rice  plants].  As  the  waters  dry  up,  the 
fish  retreat  to  any  muddy  recess,  and  the  Indians  catch 
them  with  their  hands  or  kill  them  with  sticks." 
What  becomes  of  the  fish  when  there  are  no  "  muddy 
recesses"  it  is  difificult  to  say.  but  they  always  reappear, 
after  the  rains. 

The  sugar-cane  serves  the  native  for  sweetmeats, 
and  his  two  luxuries  are  the  cigar  and  the  betel-nut. 
In  fact,  these  may  be  called  necessaries,  as  they  are 
constantly  used.  The  cigarette  can  be  bought  at  a 
very  low  price,  and  the  cost  of  the  areca,  or  betel-nut, 


426  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE, 

is  extremely  small,  so  that  there  is  no  check  to  indul- 
gence in  these  sources  of  enjoyment. 

The  betel-nut  is  used  for  a  double  purpose.  It  dyes 
the  teeth  black  and  imparts  a  deep  red  color  to  the 
lips, — these  being  considered  marks  of  beauty  by 
Malay  women.  And  it  produces  continuous  and  sus- 
tained exhilarating  eflfects,  highly  agreeable  to  those 
accustomed  to  its  use.  It  causes  giddiness  to  the  un- 
accustomed. 

The  betel-nut  is  the  fruit  of  Arcca  catechu.  A  small 
quantity  of  lime  is  placed  on  a  piece  of  the  nut.  and 
enclosed  in  a  leaf  of  siri,  or  betel-pepper.  This  is 
rubbed  violently  against  the  front  gums,  the  teeth 
being  tightly  closed.  It  is  then  chewed  for  a  moment, 
and  afterwards  held  between  the  teeth  and  lips,  while 
a  stream  of  red  saliva  flows  from  the  mouth.  A  small 
piece  of  tobacco  is  often  used  with  the  betel. 

The  dress  of  the  Filipinos  is  very  simple.  The  men 
wear  a  loose  shirt  or  blouse  outside  of  a  pair  of  panta- 
loons,— the  shirt  of  native  manufacture,  made  of  abaca, 
or  Manila  hemp.  The  pantaloons  are  of  cotton,  white 
or  striped  with  various  colors,  and  girded  round  the 
waist  with  a  kerchief,  whose  folds  serve  for  pockets. 
The  head  is  covered  with  a  kerchief  or  a  straw  hat,  or 
more  commonly  wnth  a  broad  circular  cap  like  an 
inverted  punch-bowl,  with  a  metal  spike  at  the  top 
f-or  ornament.  It  is  made  of  bamboo,  or  sometimes  of 
tortoise-shell,  and  fastened  by  a  ribbon  under  the  chin. 

The  wealthy  wear  shirts  made  of  the  costly  piila 
cloth,  handsomely  embroidered,  and  of  various  colors, 
bright  red  being  predominant.  These  sometimes  are 
worth  $ioo  each.  A  small,  exquisitely  woven  and 
embroidered  pifia  handkerchief  sent  to  the  Queen  of 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      427 

Spain  is  said  to  have  cost  $500.  The  pantaloons  are 
made  of  silk.  The  feet  of  the  peasants  are  bare,  those 
of  the  better  class  protected  by  sandals.  One  occa- 
sionally sees  a  mestizo  in  Manila  dressed  in  an  exag- 
gerated European  costume,  his  feet  in  patent-leather 
shoes,  and  a  black  Derby  hat  on  his  head.  The  hat  is 
particularly  prized,  and  is  the  first  article  of  European 
dress  adopted  by  the  native. 

The  women  dress  as  simply  as  the  men,  their  attire 
consisting  of  a  flowing  skirt  of  gay  colors,  with  an 
overskirt  of  dark  color,  composed  of  a  square  of  cot- 
ton cloth,  wound  tightly  round  the  body  from  waist  to 
knees  and  tucked  in  at  the  waist.  A  white  cotton 
chemise,  low-necked  and  short-sleeved,  covers  the 
body.  Outside  of  this  the  opulent  wear  a  broad,  loose- 
sleeved  jacket  of  the  thinnest  possible  pifia  cloth,  sup- 
plemented, when  in  full  dress,  by  a  large  kerchief  of 
the  same  material.  More  commonly,  however,  the 
kerchief  is  of  cotton  and  the  jacket  of  Manila  hemp. 
Stockings  are  not  considered  necessities  of  the  situa- 
tion, and  the  women  go  barefooted  like  the  men. 
They  wear  no  hat  or  other  head-gear,  their  heads  being 
protected  by  the  baskets  or  bundles  which  they  carry 
with  the  utmost  grace  and  ease  of  motion. 

The  women  of  pure  native  blood  are  often  very 
comely.  They  have  a  wide,  oval  face,  rather  flat  in 
profile,  a  well-formed  but  broad  nose,  well-cut  mouth 
and  fine  teeth,  large,  dark,  and  expressive  eyes,  a 
strong  but  small  chin,  and  a  low  forehead,  the  sleek- 
black  hair  being  drawn  tightly  back  and  twisted  into 
a  simple  knot.  They  are  far  more  industrious  than 
the  men,  and  also  more  cheerful  and  devout.  Morality 
prevails  among  them,  marital  irregularity  being  almost 


42S  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

unknown,  though  jealousy  is  a  common  characteristic 
of  the  men. 

The  women  of  the  better  class  are  proud  of  their 
small  feet,  which,  in  full  dress,  they  thrust  into  a  heel- 
less  slipper,  supported  by  the  toes,  and  shuffled  with 
lazy  grace.  They  even  contrive  to  dance  in  these 
slippers,  which  are  often  embroidered  with  gold  or 
silver.  The  knot  of  their  abundant  hair  is  fastened  by 
a  comb  and  gilded  needles,  and  adorned  with  a  fra- 
grant flower.  A  white  mantle  is  thrown  over  it  on 
dress  occasions.  They  have  a  graceful  and  rather 
coquettish  walk,  and  are  somewhat  given  to  languid 
glances  of  their  liquid,  lustrous  eyes.  The  mode  of 
embracing  is  by  touching  noses,  though  a  kiss  often 
accompanies  this  act.  Their  exquisite  sense  of  smell 
may  perhaps  have  something  to  do  with  this  custom. 

POPULAR  AMUSEMENTS. 

One  favorite  form  of  entertainment  in  Spain  and  her 
colonies,  the  bull-fight,  has  never  gained  a  footing  in 
the  Philippines.  There  is,  indeed,  a  bull-ring  at  Paco, 
a  suburb  of  Manila,  but  the  people  of  the  better  class 
avoid  its  shows,  and  it  aiTords  but  a  sorry  spectacle. 
But  gambling  of  one  sort  or  another  is  widely  indulged 
in,  and  the  lottery  and  the  cock-fight  have  long  flour- 
ished in  the  land.  Games  of  hazard  are  prohibited  by 
law,  but  the  lottery,  as  an  institution  from  which  the 
government  gained  half  a  million  dollars  annually,  has 
been  diligently  fostered,  the  tickets  being  sold  not  only 
throughout  the  island,  but  even  in  Hong-Kong  and 
along  the  coast  of  China.  Many  a  poor  native  has 
spent  his  last  dollar  for  a  lottery  chance  and  gone  to 
jail  in  default  of  money  to  pay  his  taxes. 


THE   PEOPLE  OF  THE   PHILIPPINES.      429 

Among  the  games  which  are  not  prohibited  is  one 
called  by  the  natives  paiigningui,  which  is  played  with 
six  packs  of  cards,  five  or  six  persons  making  a  party. 
It  is  so  popular  with  all  classes  that  the  authorities 
forbade  it  during  working  hours,  but  permitted  it  to 
be  played  from  twelve  to  two  p.m.,  and  from  sunset  to 
ten  P.M.    On  festival  days  there  was  no  restriction. 

Kite-flying,  a  form  of  amusement  introduced  by  the 
Chinese,  is  popular  in  the  Philippines,  as  are  also 
fire-balloons  and  other  pyrotecKnic  displays,  also  of 
Chinese  introduction.  Gun-ffring,  illuminations,  and 
music,  the  last  in  particular,  are  features  of  all  the  re- 
ligious feasts.  So  much,  indeed,  is  demanded  of  the 
musicians  that  it  is  stated  that  they  are  not  admitted 
to  the  bands  unless  they  can  play  eight  hours  without 
cessation.  Smoking  is  another  Philippine  passion, 
cigars  and  cigarettes  being  served  at  every  entertain- 
ment and  used  on  every  possible  occasion. 

But  the  one  overpowering  delight  of  the  native 
Filipino  is  the  cock-fight,  which  may  be  called  the 
national  vice  of  the  islanders,  and  the  custom  in  which 
the  passion  for  gambling  has  its  fullest  vent.  The  man 
is  poor  who  does  not  own  at  least  one  game-cock, 
which  he  may  commonly  be  seen  carrying  under  his 
arm,  caressing  it  and  talking  to  it  as  if  to  a  child. 

The  Spanish  had  laws  controlling  cock-fighting,  but 
only  that  they  might  obtain  from  it  all  possible 
revenue.  As  a  rule,  it  was  limited  to  Sundays  and 
feast-days,  and  on  these  occasions  the  seats  surround- 
ing the  gallcra,  or  cock-pit,  were  sure  to  be  crowded. 
The  cocks  are  not  left  to  depend  upon  the  spurs  pro- 
vided by  nature;  a  keen  gaflf,  two  inches  or  more  in 
length,  being  tied  to  the  left  leg  of  each,  so  that  chance 


430  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

is  as  common  an  element  as  skill  in  deciding  the  con- 
test. The  amount  of  betting  has  long  been  regulated 
by  law, — no  person  being  permitted  to  wager  more 
than  fifty  dollars  on  a  fight;  but  to  this  restriction  little 
heed  is  paid. 

"  The  Indians,"  says  Buzeta,  "  have  an  inveterate 
passion  for  the  sport,  which  occupies  the  first  place  in 
their  amusements.  The  cock  is  the  first  object  of  their 
care,  their  general  companion,  which  accompanies 
them  even  to  the  church-door,  and  is  fastened  to  a 
bamboo  plug  outside  when  they  enter  for  the  service 
of  the  mass.  For  no  money  will  they  dispose  of  a 
favorite  bird.  Some  possess  as  many  as  half  a  dozen 
of  these  inappreciable  treasures,  for  whose  service  they 
seem  principally  to  live." 

Bowring  says,  "  It  is  considered  a  discourtesy  to 
touch  an  Indian's  game-cock,  and  permission  is  always 
asked  to  examine  a  favorite  bird.  He  is  the  object  of 
many  a  caress;  he  eats,  crows,  and  sleeps  in  the  arms 
of  his  master;  and,  whatever  else  may  be  forgotten, 
the  cock  is  in  continual  remembrance.  I  have  found 
him  celebrated  in  verse  in  terms  the  most  affectionate. 
A  cock  that  has  been  frequently  victorious  is  subjected 
to  the  most  minute  criticism,  in  order  to  discover  by 
external  marks  what  may  serve  to  characterize  his 
merit." 

"  The  traveller."  says  Worcester,  depicting  another 
phase  of  the  situation,  "  soon  comes  to  detest  game- 
cocks; for  he  is  often  compelled  to  pass  the  night  in 
the  same  room  with  them,  and  they  begin  to  crow 
about  three  in  the  morning,  after  which  time  sleep  is 
impossible." 

It  is  not  necessary  here  to  describe  a  cock-fight.     It 


THE    PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      431 

is  a  mode  of  amusement  not  restricted  to  the  tropics, 
and  whose  characteristics  are  well  known.  In  betting, 
the  FiHpinos  fling  their  money  into  the  cock-pit  and 
pick  up  their  winnings  after  the  fight.  There  is  Httle 
desire  to  claim  money  not  won.  That  would  be  a 
dangerous  experiment  with  the  hot-tempered  natives. 

Of  another  of  the  popular  amusements,  the  religious 
feast-day  and  procession,  sufificient  has  already  been 
said.  There  is  nothing  which  the  native  more  thor- 
oughly enjoys;  the  glitter  and  garish  show  of  the 
parade,  the  music,  fire-works,  feasts,  and  other  holiday 
accompaniments,  all  appealing  warmly  to  his  imagina- 
tion, and  forming,  doubtless,  an  -essential  part  of  what 
is  spoken  of  as  his  religion. 

Much  as  the  Filipino  loves  music,  he  loves  the  dance 
as  well,  and  many  of  his  hours  of  festivity  are  spent  in 
the  enjoyment  of  these  two  elements  of  delight.  In 
addition  to  the  Spanish  dances,  there  are  native  ones 
which  are  still  more  enjoyed,  dances  into  which  the 
love  sentiment  enters  as  an  essential  element. 

There  is  a  favorite  dance  in  which  a  girl  goes 
through  the  whole  gamut  of  the  love  passion  in  song 
and  movement,  opening  with  a  low  and  plaintive  air. 
accompanied  by  slow  and  simple  movements,  as  if  in- 
dicative of  unrequited  love.  Then  her  tones  become 
louder  and  her  movements  livelier,  the  supple  curves 
of  her  graceful  form  being  warmly  significant  of  grow- 
ing passion.  She  feigns  anger.  She  stamps  her  foot, 
now  petulantly,  now  angrily,  passionate  fury  showing 
in  the  expression  of  her  deep-flushed  face.  Still  she 
sings  as  she  dances,  her  voice  eloquent  with  passion, 
her  body  swaying  backward  and  forward  in  rhythmic 
unison  with  her  song.     Her  tones  of  passion,  scorn, 


432  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

and  defiance  finally  give  place  to  a  note  of  triumph; 
her  face  glows  with  ecstasy,  and  she  bounds  forward, 
her  long,  loose  hair  flowing  behind  her,  like  a  vision 
of  joy.  Then  slowly  her  tone  sinks  to  a  gentle  sound 
of  soft  content,  and  she  blushingly  withdraws. 

A  second  dance,  in  which  two  young  men  and  a  girl 
take  part,  typifies  the  old  story  of  jealous  rivalry  on 
the  part  of  the  men,  and  of  tantalizing  coquetry  on 
that  of  the  maiden;  all  told  in  a  series  of  dance  move- 
ments as  striking  and  expressive  as  original.  A 
stranger  might  suppose  that  what  he  saw  was  serious 
earnest,  a  real  drama  of  the  heart,  so  realistic  is  the 
dramatic  feeling  with  which  the  dance  is  performed. 

These  are  not  all.  There  is  still  another  native 
dance,  in  which  a  girl  and  a  man  take  part,  of  the  sug- 
gestive and  voluptuous  character  seen  in  the  Hawaiian 
hula-hula  and  various  other  dances  of  tropical  lands. 
It  is  an  exhibition  quite  out  of  accord  wdth  Western 
ideas  of  propriety,  but  which  the  natives  view  as  a 
matter  of  course. 

The  Filipinos  have  their  actual  dramas,  some  of 
them  fairly  good, — if  no  high  standard  is  set, — though 
a  very  thin  texture  of  plot,  if  it  but  cover  an  abundance 
of  bombast,  love  scenes,  shows  of  sufifering,  and  other 
evidences  of  passion  and  feeling,  is  all  the  native  is  apt 
to  demand.  The  moro-moro  play  is  a  sort  of  miracle- 
play,  in  which  the  stage  is  filled  with  royal  personages, 
chiefs,  soldiers,  and  persons  with  Biblical  names;  a 
tragic  show  full  of  murder,  revenge,  retribution,  and 
all  evil  acts  and  passions.  With  these  is  mingled  a 
coarse  humor,  shown  by  the  stage  fool  and  lads  who 
represent  women.  It  is  devoid,  however,  of  grossness, 
— probably  the  Church  sees  to  that. 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES.      433 

There  is  one  characteristic  of  the  native  to  which 
some  allusion  should  be  made, — the  utter  ease  with 
which  he  deviates  from  the  truth  and  the  little  sense  of 
moral  delinquency  which  he  attaches  to  falsehood.  It 
will  suffice  to  quote  from  Worcester's  ''  Philippine 
Islands:" 

"  The  civilized  natives  seldom  voluntarily  confess 
faults,  and  often  lie  most  unconscionably  to  conceal 
some  trivial  shortcoming.  In  fact,  they  frequently  lie 
without  any  excuse  whatever,  unless  it  be  the  aesthetic 
satisfaction  derived  from  the  exercise  of  their  remark- 
able talent  in  this  direction.  When  one  of  them  is  de- 
tected in  a  falsehood,  he  is  simply  chagrined  that  his 
performance  was  not  more  creditably  carried  out.  He 
feels  no  sense  of  moral  guilt,  and  cannot  understand 
being  punished  for  what  is  not,  to  his  mind,  an  of- 
fence." 

The  natives  usually  marry  early,  the  brides  being 
often  not  more  than  eleven  or  twelve  years  of  age. 
The  marriage-day  is  one  of  much  pomp  and  ceremony, 
and  is  of  importance  to  the  priest,  who  expects  a  fee 
large  in  proportion  to  the  means  of  the  parties  con- 
cerned. 

On  the  evening  before  the  ceremony  the  bride  and 
groom  go  to  confession  and  receive  absolution.  On 
the  next  morning  they  leave  the  house  of  the  bride, 
their  relatives  following  in  a  long  procession.  After 
the  saying  of  mass,  the  priest  places  a  thick  mantle 
over  their  shoulders,  typical  of  their  bodily  union. 
The  ceremony  is  then  performed,  the  only  special  feat- 
ure being  that,  as  the  bride  and  groom  are  leaving  the 
church,  a  bowl  of  coin  is  handed  them.  The  husband 
takes  from  it  a  handful  of  coins  which  he  gives  to  his 

28 


434  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

wife,  who  on  her  part  returns  them  to  the  bowl.    This 
signifies  that  he  presents  to  her  his  worldly  goods. 

They  return  home  to  a  banquet,  at  which  all  the 
notables  of  the  village  as  well  as  the  relatives  are  pres- 
ent, and  all  the  delicacies  of  the  season  are  served  up. 
Special  dances  and  songs  follow.  The  marriage  is 
always  arranged  by  the  parents  of  the  young  couple, 
the  father  of  the  groom  furnishing  a  dowry  for  the 
bride.  The  property  of  the  wife  is  her  own  to  dispose 
of,  the  husband  having  no  right  of  inheritance  in  it, — 
a  regulation  which  adds  to  the  importance  of  the 
woman's  position  in  the  family. 

THE  MESTIZOS. 

The  mestizos,  or  half-breeds,  have  been  already  ad- 
verted to,  and  little  more  needs  to  be  said  concerning 
them,  since  in  most  respects  they  conform  in  mode  of 
life  to  the  customs  of  the  civilized  natives.  They  are 
usually  the  children  of  Chinese  or  Spanish  fathers  and 
native  mothers,  largely  of  the  former,  though  the 
Spanish  mestizos  occupy  the  superior  place  in  the 
community.  The  latter  are  generally  handsome,  and 
are  more  intelligent,  enterprising,  and  energetic  than 
the  pure  natives,  many  of  them  becoming  wealthy 
merchants  and  attaining  positions  of  influence. 

Many  of  the  mestiza  women  and  girls  are  beautiful, 
with  a  soft  olive  complexion,  red  lips,  pearly  teeth,  and 
liquid  black  eyes.  Their  hair,  like  that  of  the  native 
women,  is  of  a  glossy  black,  reaching  frequently  to 
the  ground.  They  are  very  proud  of  it,  and  also  of 
their  small  feet,  when  endowed  with  them  by  nature. 
To  enhance  the  seeming  smallness  of  their  feet,  they 
often  wear  slippers   much  too   small   for  them,   and 


THE    PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      435 

leaving  one  or  more  of  the  toes  outside.  They  are  Hthe 
and  graceful  in  movement  and  are  famed  for  their 
dancing.  Those  educated  in  the  convent  schools  are 
trained  in  music  and  possess  other  accomplishments. 

The  fair  mestizas  wear  the  native  dress,  the  camisa, 
or  waist,  and  the  panuelo,  or  neck-kerchief,  being,  with 
those  of  wealth,  made  of  the  beautiful  and  costly  piiia, 
or  pineapple  silk,  which  is  handsomely  embroidered. 
This  dress,  with  the  gay-colored  skirt  and  long  train, 
is  very  pretty,  and  is  so  comfortable  in  its  adaptation 
to  the  climate  that  many  of  the  European  ladies  wear 
it  as  a  home  attire. 

The  characteristics  of  the  Spanish  mestizo  soon  dis- 
appear if  not  maintained  by  admixture  of  blood  in  the 
second  or  later  generations.  This  is  not  the  case  with 
the  Chinese  mestizos,  whose  characteristic  qualities 
are  more  lasting, — probably  from  the  close  affinity  of 
the  two  races.  These  half-breeds,  known  as  mestizo 
Chinos,  possess  a  higher  degree  of  intelligence  than  the 
natives,  and  have  much  of  the  business  shrewdness  of 
their  paternal  stock.  Many  of  the  prominent  mer- 
chants of  Manila  are  of  this  descent.  They  are,  how- 
ever, tricky  in  their  dealings,  and  are  not  liked  or 
trusted  by  the  people.  "  They  have  the  mongrel  stamp 
and  a  cunning,  shifty  look."  Many  of  them  took  part 
with  the  rebels  during  the  recent  insurrection;  a  fact 
which  made  the  high-class  natives  slow  in  joining  the 
insurgents;  they  being  strongly  disinclined  to  connect 
themselves  with  the  despised  mestizos,  even  against 
the  hated  Spaniards, 


436  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

THE  MOROS. 

The  fierceness  and  love  of  war  of  the  Moros  of  the 
Sulu  Islands  and  Mindanao  distinguish  them  markedly 
from  the  much  more  peaceful  natives  of  the  north. 
The  men  are  of  medium  height,  but  are  often  superb 
in  physical  development,  and  dress  tastefully  in  panta- 
loons, waistcoat,  jacket,  sash,  and  turban.  Their  pan- 
taloons are  skin-tight  below  the  knee  and  loose  above, 
and  are  usually  of  scarlet  or  some  other  bright  color. 
Rows  of  shining  buttons  ornament  the  sides.  If  fight- 
ing is  expected,  this  showy  garb  is  discarded  for  loose 
black  trousers.  The  mode  in  which  the  turban  is 
tied  indicates  the  rank  of  its  wearer. 

The  women  are  equally  fond  of  bright  colors  with 
the  men,  and  love  to  adorn  themselves  with  jewelry. 
They  wear  the  baggy  divided  skirt  everywhere  used 
by  Mohammedan  women,  and  a  skin-tight  waist  of 
bright  color,  and  usually  embroidered  in  arabesque 
designs.  The  jabul,  a  long  strip  of  cloth  sewn  together 
at  the  ends,  is  draped  about  the  body  or  thrown  over 
the  head  as  a  protection  from  the  sun,  its  end  being 
held  under  the  arm. 

Weapons  are  carried  by  all  males  above  sixteen, 
their  coats  of  mail,  swords,  lances,  krisses,  and  other 
weapons  being  all  of  their  own  make,  an  art  in  which 
they  are  very  skilful.  These  are  often  beautifully  fin- 
ished, and  are  excellently  suited  to  the  purpose  de- 
signed. Silver  and  gold  are  used  to  inlay  the  steel, 
and  the  hilts  are  made  of  ivory  or  hard  polished  wood, 
at  times  beautifully  carved.  The  art  of  tempering  is 
thoroughly  understood. 

The  men  are  often  handsome  and  usually  robust 


THE   PEOPLE   OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      437 

and  active.  Their  complexion  is  of  a  dusky  bronze, 
their  eyes  black  and  piercing,  their  foreheads  low,  the 
glossy  black  hair  falling  in  waves  upon  the  neck. 
Fierce  and  daring  as  they  are,  they  are  not  lacking  in 
caution,  being  mentally  sober  and  self-contained,  while 
quick  in  judgment  and  decision.  Suspicion  seems  an 
element  of  their  nature,  and  they  are  obstinate  and 
vindictive  in  disposition  and  merciless  in  anger. 

Slavery  has  existed  among  them  since  the  conquest 
of  the  land,  and  by  the  laws  of  Sulu  not  only  the 
debtor,  but  his  wife  and  children,  become  slaves  of  the 
creditor  if  he  is  unable  to  pay  his  debt.  He  can  only 
free  them  from  this  fate  by  the  sacrifice  of  his  own  life, 
through  joining  the  juramcntados,  who  are  sworn  to 
die  in  killing  Christians.  The  bloody  raids  of  these 
devoted  fanatics  have  been  already  described. 

The  Moros  of  Mindanao  hunt  the  savage  tribes  with 
murderous  thirst,  eager  to  win  the  coveted  title  of 
bagani,  to  obtain  which  the  aspirant  must  have  cut  ofT 
sixty  heads.  This  entitles  him  to  wear  a  scarlet  turban, 
and  only  a  bagani  can  become  a  chief.  The  Mandayas 
seek  to  escape  these  murderers  by  building  their  huts 
high  up  among  the  branches  of  trees,  whence  they 
hurl  stones  upon  their  assailants.  The  Moros  in  re- 
turn try  to  fire  their  huts  with  burning  arrows.  Fail- 
ing in  this,  they  will  climb  the  tree  with  their  shields 
locked  together  above  them,  and  cut  down  the  posts 
that  support  the  hut  in  the  tree.  The  captives  are  then 
divided  among  the  captors,  the  heads  of  the  males 
being  cut  off,  and  the  women  and  children  carried  off 
as  slaves. 

The  ofifice  of  chief  is  hereditary  among  the  Sulu 
Moros.    On  the  death  of  a  chief,  the  pandita,  or  priest, 


438  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

chants  a  requiem,  while  a  gong  made  from  hollowed 
wood  is  beaten  by  the  attendants.  The  people,  hear- 
ing this  alarm  sound,  rush  in,  and  stamp  and  shout 
while  the  body  is  sprinkled  with  salt.  A  successor  is 
then  chosen. 

Though  the  Sulu  Islands  were  annexed  to  the 
Philippines  and  their  people  subdued  by  General 
Arolas,  they  paid  no  taxes,  and  the  Spanish  govern- 
ment found  it  wise  to  pay  the  sultan  a  pension  of  $2400 
yearly.  In  their  language,  the  sultan  is  the  '"Stainless 
One,"  and  is  despotic  over  both  church  and  state. 
His  power  is  hereditary  in  his  family,  an  advisory 
council  and  ministers  helping  him  in  the  toils  of  gov- 
ernment. His  palace,  a  large  edifice  of  wood,  is  in  the 
new  capital  Maybun,  where  he  lives  in  state.  The  ves- 
tibule to  the  throne-room  is  adorned  with  an  abundant 
display  of  the  richest  flowering  plants  and  shrubs,  and 
servants  flit  about  in  gay  costumes,  ofifering  betel- 
nut  to  every  one  present,  from  the  sultanas  to  for- 
eign guests,  all  being  seated  on  embroidered  silken 
cushions  scattered  about  the  floor.  There  are  two 
sultanates  in  Mindanao,  both  subordinate  to  the  sultan 
of  Sulu. 

In  1885,  the  governor-general  cited  the  sultan  to 
appear  at  Manila,  that  he  might  be  duly  invested  in  his 
office.  He  refused  to  go;  a  predecessor  having  obeyed 
the  summons  and  been  made  prisoner.  In  conse- 
quence, another  chief,  Datto  Hai-un.  was  appointed  in 
his  place.  The  new  sultan  proved  himself  a  true  Moro. 
General  Arolas  having  returned  to  Spain  and  a  less 
shrewd  and  cautious  governor  taken  his  place,  the 
latter  unwisely  decided  to  tax  the  Moros,  and  ordered 
them  to  come  to  town  and  pay  their  tribute.     They 


THE   PEOPLE   OF  THE   PHILIPPINES.      439 

appeared  on  the  appointed  day  in  considerable  force, 
headed  by  Harun,  and  after  some  hesitation  were  ad- 
mitted to  the  town.  Harun  came  forward,  offering  the 
governor  a  bag  of  pearls,  then,  suddenly  drawing  a 
barong,  clove  his  skull  to  the  teeth.  His  followers  fell 
upon  the  soldiers  with  such  fury  that  only  two  or  three 
of  them  escaped.  The  town  was  razed  to  the  ground. 
Thus  it  was  that  the  Moros  paid  tax  to  Spain. 

THE  WILD  TRIBES. 

The  wild  Malay  tribes  of  the  interior  need  no  further 
description  than  we  have  already  given  them,  as  they 
mainly  differ  from  the  civilized  natives  in  the  greater 
primitiveness  of  their  habits.  They  present  the  Ma- 
lay in  his  savage,  hunting  stage  as  the  others  present 
him  in  his  civilized,  agricultural  stage.  Each  possesses 
the  Malay  character,  though  in  the  latter  case  it  has 
been  softened  and  refined  by  civilizing  influences  and 
by  the  effects  of  Christian  teaching. 

The  wild  natives  remain  heathens,  possessing  vari- 
ous notions  derived  from  their  ancestral  doctrines.  In 
case  of  death,  the  Tagbanuas  seek  to  guard  the  corpse 
against  a  mysterious,  man-like  creature,  called  balbal, 
which  comes  from  the  Moro  country,  moving  through 
the  air  like  a  flying  squirrel.  It  has  curved  nails  with 
which  it  tears  up  the  thatch  of  houses,  and  a  long 
tongue  with  which  it  can  reach  down  and  "  lick  up" 
the  dead  body. 

The  dead  are  judged  by  a  gigantic  deity  named 
Taliakood,  residing  in  the  interior  of  the  earth,  who 
keeps  a  fire  steadily  burning.  He  asks  the  deceased 
if  he  has  led  a  good  or  a  bad  life,  and  is  answered,  not 
by  the  individual,  but  by  a  louse  on  his  body.     If  the 


440  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

report  is  unfavorable,  the  hapless  individual  is  pitched 
into  the  fire  and  burned  to  ashes.  If  favorable,  he 
passes  on  into  rich  and  happy  hunting  grounds,  where 
a  house  and  a  wife  await  him.  Each  person  dies  seven 
times  in  all,  going  successively  deeper  into  the  earth, 
and  each  time  gaining  a  happier  stage  of  existence. 

The  more  savage  ]\Iangyans  appear  to  be  destitute 
of  anything  that  can  be  called  religion,  presenting  no 
evidence  of  worship  of  any  sort  or  of  any  conception 
of  the  supernatural.  As  regards  ideas  of  a  future  life, 
they  settle  it  briefly  by  the  statement,  "  When  a  Man- 
gyan  is  dead,  he  is  dead."  If  they  have  any  religious 
conceptions,  these  must  be  very  crude  and  unformed. 
Yet  they  are  not  immoral.  Women  are  faithful  to 
their  husbands,  though  the  idea  of  modesty  does  not 
seem  to  exist,  and  property  precious  to  them  may  be 
safely  left  among  them  without  risk  of  its  being  stolen. 

THE  AETAS,  OR  NEGRITOS. 

The  Negrito  aborigines  difTer  essentially  from  the 
Malays  in  racial  characters  and  customs.  They  are 
very  dark  in  color,  some  as  sable  as  negroes,  are 
dwarfish  in  size  and  ugly  in  countenance,  their  feat- 
ures being  coarse  and  ill  shaped.  Their  hair  is  black 
and  curly  and  closely  matted.  Mentally  they  are  stupid 
and  undeveloped,  apparently  incapable  of  improve- 
ment, and  lacking  in  the  qualities  of  judgment  and 
aggressiveness.  They  go  almost  naked,  and  subsist  by 
hunting  and  on  the  wild  fruits  and  tubers  of  the  forest, 
seemingly  having  little  or  no  knowledge  of  agricul- 
ture. They  seem  to  stand  at  the  bottom  of  the  human 
scale,  and  all  attempts  to  instruct  them  have  proved 
failures. 


THE   PEOPLE  OF   THE   PHILIPPINES.      441 

The  weapons  of  these  forest  dwarfs  are  a  bamboo 
lance,  a  bow  of  palm-wood,  and  a  quiver  of  poisoned 
arrows.  In  this  respect  they  agree  with  the  pigmy 
tribes  of  Africa,  who  also  possess  the  art  of  poisoning 
their  arrows.  Though  mentally  deficient,  they  are 
physically  alert,  being  remarkably  fleet  of  foot,  while 
they  can  climb  like  monkeys. 

About  fifty  families  of  Negritos  usually  live  together, 
their  life  being  spent  in  wandering,  and  shelter  ob- 
tained by  a  simple  erection  of  sloping  poles  and  leaves 
or  rude  thatched  huts  raised  on  bamboo  poles.  Fond 
of  tobacco,  they  obtain  it  by  trading  the  wax  and 
honey  of  wild  bees  with  the  Malays.  Meat  they  often 
obtain  in  another  fashion, — swooping  down  upon  the 
valley  and  driving  oflf  the  cattle  of  the  natives  into  the 
mountain  recesses. 

Unlike  savages  in  general,  they  give  tender  care  to 
the  aged  and  show  much  reverence  for  the  dead. 
Death  comes  to  them  early,  their  age  seldom  exceed- 
ing forty  years.  The  dress  of  the  men  consists  of  a 
belt  of  bark  fibres,  that  of  the  women  of  a  sort  of  petti- 
coat of  the  same,  unmarried  girls  wearing  a  collar  of 
palm  leaves,  whose  ends  meet  beneath  their  breasts. 
They  are  said  to  resist  all  attempts  upon  their  chastity. 

Their  marriage  custom  is  a  curious  one,  being  a 
form  of  pursuit  and  capture.  The  young  man  whose 
advances  to  a  girl  have  been  favorably  received  by  her 
parents,  begins  the  ceremony  by  catching  her  in  his 
arms.  She  breaks  loose  and  runs,  he  in  hot  pursuit; 
she  being  several  times  caught  and  as  often  escaping. 
After  this  play  of  struggle  and  release  Has  been  kept 
up  for  a  time,  the  maid  submits,  and  is  led  back  in 
triumph  to  her  home. 


442  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

The  father  of  tlie  bride  now  drags  the  youth  up  a 
ladder  to  the  floor  of  their  hut.  The  mother  does  the 
same  with  the  girl.  The  two  now  kneel  side  by  side 
and  the  father  throws  over  them  a  cocoa-nut  shellful 
of  water.  He  then  bumps  their  heads  together  and 
they  are  considered  man  and  wife.  Their  honeymoon 
is  spent  in  the  mountain  depths,  where  they  remain 
for  five  days  and  nights,  finally  returning  to  village 
life. 

A  still  more  curious  marriage  custom  is  described 
as  follows:  The  youth  and  maiden  are  made  to  climb 
two  slender  saplings  in  close  propinquity.  These  are 
now  seized  by  an  elder  of  the  group  and  drawn  to- 
gether until  the  heads  of  the  climbers  touch  each  other. 
They  are  now  considered  man  and  wife  and  allowed  to 
descend. 


4 


i 


VII.  AGRICULTURAL  INDUSTRIES. 

MANILA  HEMP. 

Prominent  among  the  products  of  nature  in  the 
Philippines  is  the  valuable  fibre  known  as  Manila 
hemp,  yielded  by  a  plant  native  to  these  islands  and 
as  yet  never  cultivated  profitably  elsewhere.  The  plant 
in  question  is  Mitsa  tcxtilis,  a  species  of  plantain  that 
grows  wild  in  many  of  the  islands,  and  in  appearance 
closely  resembles  the  banana.  The  banana  is  taller 
and  its  leaves  of  a  lighter  green;  but  the  only  other 
visible  difference  is  in  the  fruit,  that  of  the  hemp  plant 
being  small  and  unfit  to  eat. 

This  plant  is  known  in  the  Philippines  as  the  abaca. 
Like  all  the  plantains,  it  is  an  herb,  not  a  tree.  It  dies 
after  once  bearing  flowers  and  fruit;  but  a  new  plant 
springs  up  from  the  root,  reaching  an  average  height 
of  ten  feet  and  an  extreme  height  of  twenty  feet,  with 
a  diameter  of  from  eight  to  twelve  inches.  This  plant 
flourishes  in  hilly  situations,  sometimes  in  the  thinnest 
volcanic  soil,  but  will  not  grow  in  low,  wet  lands.  Its 
period  of  growth  is  three  years,  at  the  end  of  which 
time  it  sends  up  a  central  flower-stem. 

It  is  now  ready  for  utilization.  The  flower-stem  is 
cut  away  before  the  fruit  appears,  and  the  leaf-stalks — 
over  six  feet  long — are  cut  down  and  torn  into  strips 
five  or  six  inches  wide.  These  strips,  known  as  bast, 
contain  the  hemp  fibre,  surrounded  by  a  soft,  pulpy 
substance,  which  must  be  got  rid  of.    This  is  done  in 

443 


444  <^UR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

a  very  primitive  fashion ;  the  pulp  being  scraped  away 
with  the  aid  of  a  dull  knife,  which  is  attached  by  a 
hinge  to  a  block  of  wood.  The  bast  is  drawn  between 
the  knife  and  the  block,  a  foot-treadle  being  used  to 
produce  the  necessary  pressure  upon  the  strips.  As  a 
result,  the  pulp  and  juice  are  squeezed  out  and  remain 
on  the  side  of  the  knife,  and  the  fibre,  as  it  passes 
through,  is  wound  round  a  stick  of  wood. 

Little  more  is  necessary.  The  fibre  is  still  very 
moist,  more  than  half  its  weight  being  water.  It  is 
laid  in  the  sun  to  dry,  and  left  for  about  five  hours, 
after  which  it  is  gathered  into  bales  of  about  240 
pounds  weight,  bound  with  hoops  of  iron  or  rattan, 
and  is  ready  for  shipment. 

Many  attempts  have  been  made  to  improve  upon 
the  native  method  of  cleaning  the  bast,  but  none  have 
proved  successful, — some  of  them  breaking,  others 
discoloring  the  fibre,  and  the  best  of  them  being  more 
expensive  than  the  old  hand  process.  Yet  the  natives 
are  not  the  most  honest  of  operators.  They  are  apt 
to  leave  the  bast  exposed  to  rain  and  air,  which  makes 
it  more  easily  cleaned,  but  weakens  and  discolors  the 
fibre.  They  also  often  use  a  toothed  knife,  which  fails 
to  remove  all  the  pulp  and  wounds  and  discolors  the 
fibre.  Properly  prepared  Manila  hemp  should  be  per- 
fectly clean  and  white,  but,  as  it  is  sold  by  weight,  the 
dishonest  native  seeks  to  leave  some  of  the  pulp  so  as 
to  make  it  weigh  heavier,  without  tikiiig  thought  of 
its  loss  in  value. 

Hemp-growing  is  the  least  troublesome  f<  rm  of 
Philippine  agriculture,  and  gives  the  best  returns  in 
comparison  with  expense.  Considerable  capital  is 
needed  in  starting  a  plantation,  as  three  o  •  more  years 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  445 

pass  before  any  profit  can  be  made;  after  that  the 
planter  can  count  on  an  annual  yield.  There  is  little 
risk  to  be  feared,  a  forest  wind-break  being  left  to 
protect  the  plants  from  hurricanes,  while  they  are  free 
from  attacks  by  locusts  and  most  other  insects.  Their 
moist  stems  are  an  assurance  against  fire,  no  plough- 
ing is  needed,  no  expensive  machinery  is  required;  it 
is  only  necessary  to  loosen  the  earth  and  keep  down 
weeds.  An  occasional  drought  is  the  only  enemy  the 
planter  need  fear. 

Yet  he  suflFers  severely  through  the  negligence  of 
his  native  help,  the  waste  being  enormous.  In  some 
cases  the  leaf-stalks  are  cut  before  they  are  mature; 
in  others  they  are  left  until  they  rot  on  the  plant. 
Through  this  and  other  forms  of  carelessness  full  thirty 
per  cent,  of  the  fibre  is  lost. 

Work  on  an  estate  is  done  on  the  co-operative  plan, 
the  workmen  not  being  paid  in  money,  but  receiving 
half  the  fibre  they  clean.  They  work  in  couples,  and 
make  good  wages  even  for  a  poor  quality  of  hemp.  In 
addition  to  the  large  planters,  many  natives  produce 
hemp  fibre  in  a  small  way,  selling  it  to  the  Chinese 
dealers.  Chinamen  also  often  lease  the  native  lands 
for  a  term  of  years,  work  them  exhaustively,  produce 
poor  fibre,  and  return  the  plantation  ruined  for  the 
time  being.  As  a  result,  the  Chinese  product  is  criti- 
cally inspected  before  purchase. 

The  islands  of  Leyte  and  Marinduque  and  certain 
districts  in  Luzon  yield  the  finest  quality  of  hemp. 
The  province  of  Albay,  in  southeast  Luzon,  perhaps 
stands  first  in  quality  and  quantity,  its  annual  yield 
averaging  about  20,000  tons.  The  demand  for  hemp 
has  grown  up  principally  since  1825;   before  that  date 


446  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

the  yield  was  insignificant.  In  1840  it  reached  about 
8500  tons,  in  1880  about  50,000.  and  is  now  perhaps 
double  this  quantity. 

Manila  hemp  is  used  principally  in  the  manufacture 
of  sail-cloth,  mats,  and  cordage.  The  stout  brown 
wrapping-paper  known  as  Manila  paper  is  made  from 
old  rope.  A  large  percentage  of  the  fibre  goes  to  the 
United  States,  most  of  the  remainder  to  Great  Britain. 
In  Paris,  carpets,  tapestry,  hammocks,  and  even  bon- 
nets are  made  out  of  this  valuable  material. 

A  very  fine  hemp  fibre  is  obtained  in  small  quantities 
from  the  edges  of  the  leaf-stalks  or  petioles,  from  which 
a  fine,  silky  material,  suitable  for  dress  goods,  is 
woven.  On  one  island  this  is  mixed  with  the  pifia 
fibre  and  the  fabric  sold  to  foreigners  for  pure  pifia, 
whose  exquisite  softness  it  lacks. 

During  the  last  decade  the  United  States  is  said  to 
have  received  fully  forty  per  cent,  of  all  the  hemp  fibre 
produced;  a  single  firm  in  Boston,  in  the  ten  years 
previous  to  1898,  buying  79,000  tons  of  hemp,  for 
which  they  paid  an  average  price  of  three  cents  a 
pound  in  the  Manila  market.  The  total  export  to  the 
United  States  during  this  period  was  914,100  tons. 
This  quantity  is  capable  of  being  greatly  increased. 

SUGAR. 

The  poorest  sugar  in  the  world  comes  from  the 
Philippine  Islands,  though  the  best  might  be  produced 
with  careful  culture  and  manufacture.  The  yield  is 
large,  but  the  whole  process  is  slovenly  in  the  extreme, 
and  the  sugar  produced  is  coarse  in  grain  and  inferior 
in  quality.  The  culture  of  the  cane  extends  to  some 
extent  through  the  whole  archipelago,  but  is  princi- 


I 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  447 

pally  confined  to  the  islands  of  Negros,  Panay,  Luzon, 
and  Cebu, — the  yellow  variety  being  grown  in  Lvizon, 
the  purple  in  the  southern  islands.  The  quantity 
yielded  for  export,  after  the  demands  of  the  islands  are 
satisfied,  is  about  175,000  tons  annually,  or  about  one- 
sixth  the  output  of  Cuba  in  prosperous  times. 

Negros,  an  island  of  about  the  size  of  Porto  Rico, 
possesses  the  finest  region  for  sugar-cane.  The  cul- 
ture began  there  about  1850,  and  the  yield  for  export 
is  now  about  80,000  tons  per  annum,  though  not  more 
than  half  its  area  is  cultivated.  Its  sugar  is  sent  to 
Iloilo  for  shipment  abroad. 

The  inferior  quality  of  Philippine  sugar  is  due  to  the 
conservatism  of  the  natives,  who  cling  to  primitive 
methods,  the  mills  employed  being  as  antiquated  as 
those  used  in  Europe  in  the  thirteenth  century.  They 
have  rollers  of  wood  or  stone,  which  are  turned  by 
buffalo-  or  ox-power,  and  fitted  with  wooden  teeth  to 
break  and  crush  the  cane.  As  a  result,  only  about 
forty  per  cent,  of  the  juice  is  extracted.  This  is  boiled 
in  iron  pans,  yielding  a  black,  pasty  mass. 

No  other  colony  under  European  control  is  so 
primitive  in  its  methods,  many  of  the  sugar  lands  being 
held  by  the  natives,  who  do  not  care  to  change  from 
the  system  first  taught  them.  The  province  of  Ba- 
tangas,  in  Luzon,  is  the  most  backward.  In  those  of 
Pampanga,  Bulacan,  and  Laguna  the  natives  own  most 
of  the  lands,  but  here  many  small  steam-mills  have 
been  introduced.  In  Negros  and  Panay,  where  the 
culture  is  much  more  recent,  improved  methods  have 
been  adopted.  Cebu  possesses  many  of  the  old  cattle- 
mills,  though  some  estates  have  adopted  modern 
methods.     According  to  the  latest  available  statistics, 


448  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  islands  contain  5920  cattle-,  239  steam-,  and  35 
water-mills,  with  only  two  vacuum-pan  works. 

In  the  native  manufacture,  the  sugar,  after  being 
brought  to  the  proper  density  by  boiling  in  open  pans, 
is  put  into  pilons,  which  are  placed  over  pots,  into 
which  the  molasses  drains  slowly  and  imperfectly. 
The  pilon  is  a  conical  earthen  jar,  holding  about  133 
pounds  of  sugar,  the  molasses  draining  through  a 
straw^  filter  in  a  hole  in  its  bottom.  It  rests  on  an 
earthen  crock  holding  twelve  quarts. 

After  the  drainage  is  completed,  the  pilons  are 
emptied  at  farderias,  or  drying-grounds;  the  sugar, 
varying  in  hue  from  light  at  top  to  dark  at  bottom, 
is  cut  up  and  broken  and  left  to  dry,  and  the  product 
is  then  mixed  to  obtain  sugar  of  uniform  color.  The 
dry  sugar  shipped  from  Manila  to  the  United  States 
and  England  is  almost  all  prepared  in  this  way. 

The  sugar  of  Batangas  province,  the  worst  produced 
anywhere  upon  the  earth,  is  prepared  for  market  in 
the  following  manner.  The  juice  expressed  in  the 
cattle-mills  is  boiled  in  iron  pans  over  a  trench  in 
the  ground,  the  sugar  and  other  solid  matter  com- 
bining into  a  black,  pasty  mass  of  repugnant  appear- 
ance. This  is  taken  from  the  pans  and  thrown  into 
the  corner  of  a  shed,  a  mud  wall  being  built  before  the 
heap  as  it  grows  in  depth.  This  wall  is  an  essential 
part  of  the  process,  for  when  the  sugar  is  taken  from 
the  shed  much  of  the  mud  of  the  wall  is  mixed  with  it 
to  add  to  its  weight.  This  delectable  compound  forms 
the  Taal  sugar  of  commerce,  the  town  of  Taal  being 
the  mercantile  centre  of  the  province. 

The  sugar,  packed  in  mat  bags,  is  carted  to  the 
coast,  the  molasses  dripping  from  the  carts  into  the 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  449 

road  as  they  lurch  onward.  The  bags  reach  Manila  in 
a  dilapidated  state,  and  the  sugar  is  there  packed  into 
new  bags  and  loaded  on  board  vessel.  On  reaching 
Europe,  the  bags  are  frequently  found  to  be  torn  to 
pieces  and  the  sugar  mixed  into  a  solid  mass,  which 
needs  to  be  dug  out  of  the  hold  of  the  vessel  with  pick 
and  shovel.  The  loss  is  often  as  much  as  ten  or  twelve 
per  cent.,  which  is  borne  by  the  several  shippers  in 
proportion  to  their  consignment.  Near  Taal  there  are 
many  steam-mills  and  two  vacuum-pans  and  centrifu- 
gal mills;  yet  the  natives  pay  no  heed  to  the  example. 

In  Negros,  Cebu,  and  the  Iloilo  province  of  Panay 
the  juice  is  boiled  to  a  certain  density,  and  the  sugar 
emptied  into  wooden  trays  and  beaten  until  it  has  a 
yellow  color.  This  forms  the  "  Superior  de  Iloilo."  It 
is  then  put  in  bags  and  exported  without  farther  prepa- 
ration. It  does  not  drip  molasses  like  that  of  Taal, 
and  loses  little  in  weight. 

The  sugar  plantations  are  generally  sniall,  there  be- 
ing less  than  a  dozen  in  the  country  with  an  annual 
yield  of  more  than  1000  tons  of  raw  sugar.  The  lack 
of  transportation  greatly  checks  production,  and  there 
is  abundant  opportunity  for  capital  and  enterprise  to 
increase  very  greatly  the  quantity  and  quality  of 
Philippine  sugar. 

Until  1890  the  United  States  imported  annually  from 
50,000  to  150,000  tons  of  Manila  sugar.  Much  of  the 
product  now,  however,  finds  a  nearer  market,  China 
and  Japan  having  become  large  consumers,  and  in 
1898  the  United  States  received  only  about  37,000 
tons.  There  is  an  extensive  refinery  in  Hong-Kong 
which  takes  a  large  supply. 

29 


450  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

TOBACCO. 

The  tobacco  plant  was  introduced  into  the  Philip- 
pines by  missionaries  from  Mexico,  and  has  developed 
into  one  of  the  most  important  crops  of  the  islands. 
From  1 78 1  to  the  end  of  1882  Spain  maintained  a 
monopoly  over  this  product,  during  which  period,  in 
certain  districts  in  northern  Luzon,  the  natives  were 
virtual  slaves  of  the  leaf,  each  family  being  obliged  to 
produce  a  certain  quantity  of  leaf  annually,  failure  to 
do  so  being  followed  by  severe  treatment.  If  an  In- 
dian was  caught  smoking  a  cigar  made  from  his  own 
leaf,  he  was  arrested  and  fined;  the  fine  and  costs 
amounting  to  about  eight  dollars  for  a  cigar  and  two 
dollars  for  a  cigarette. 

Earnest  efforts  were  made  to  confine  the  growth  of 
tobacco  to  certain  selected  districts;  yet,  despite  all 
precautions,  much  tobacco  was  grown  in  remote  and 
concealed  localities,  and  those  who  knew  the  art  could 
always  buy  a  good  cigar  for  about  one-fourth  the  price 
paid  in  a  Manila  shop.  The  attempts  to  break  up  this 
illicit  growth  and  smuggling  led  to  many  stubborn 
encounters  between  the  natives  and  the  revenue  offi- 
cers, and  the  difficulty  grew  until  it  led  in  the  end  to 
the  abolishment  of  the  monopoly. 

Since  1882  the  growth  of  tobacco  has  been  greatly 
stimulated.  The  best  leaf  comes  from  the  districts  of 
Cagayan  and  Isabella,  in  northern  Luzon,  these  yield- 
ing from  60,000  to  100,000  tons  annually.  Tobacco  is 
also  grown  in  other  parts  of  Luzon  and  in  Cebu  and 
Panay,  there  being  in  all  about  60,000  acres  under  cul- 
tivation. The  methods  of  culture  and  curing  do  not 
differ  from  those  in  Cuba,  and  need  not  be  again  de- 
scribed. 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  451 

Smoking  is  universal  in  the  Philippines,  by  natives 
and  foreigners  alike;  even  the  savage  Negritos  have 
acquired  a  taste  for  the  foreign  leaf,  their  smoking 
frequently  performed  with  the  lighted  end  of  the  cigar 
in  the  mouth.  Everywhere  the  fumigation  goes  on, — 
except  in  church.  Women  smoke  as  freely  as  men; 
Spanish  women  of  wealth  and  fashion  as  freely  as  the 
wives  of  the  natives.  Cigars  and  cigarettes  are  sold 
in  the  remotest  hamlets  of  the  islands  as  well  as  in  the 
largest  cities,  and  to  all  classes  of  the  population,  from 
savage  to  governor;  smoking  being  the  absorbing 
passion  of  the  Filipinos  of  all  grades  and  degrees. 

There  are  various  views  as  to  the  quality  of  the 
Philippine  leaf.  Old  residents  believe  their  own  to- 
bacco unequalled  in  quality.  Foreigners  are  sure  to 
prefer  the  Cuban  cigar,  of  Vuelta  Abajo  origin,  and 
millions  of  "  Havana"  cigars  are  sold  in  Manila,  every 
fibre  of  whose  leaf  grew  in  Philippine  soil.  About 
equal  quantities  of  Cuban  and  Manila  cigars  are  pro- 
duced,— unlike  in  size  and  shape  but  alike  in  quality 
and  flavor, — the  difference  being  far  more  a  matter  of 
opinion  than  of  fact. 

RICE. 

The  product  of  the  rice  fields  is  that  upon  which  the 
very  existence  of  the  Filipinos  depends,  rice  being  the 
universal  aliment  of  the  people,  the  food  substance  to 
which  all  others  are  supplementary.  Rice,  a  plant 
native  to  the  East,  has  from  immemorial  time  been  the 
leading  food-product  of  Eastern  Asia,  and  has  in  the 
recent  period  extended  its  range  widely  round  the 
tropics.  It  is  grown  in  every  island  of  the  Philii)pines; 
rice  culture  being  the  branch  of  agricultural  industry 


452  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

which  the  people  of  these  islands,  as  of  China  and 
Japan,  best  understand  and  most  enjoy. 

Rice  in  the  husk  is  called  paddy,  in  the  Philippines 
as  in  India,  and  in  speaking  of  its  cultivation  this  word 
is  very  commonly  used.  More  than  twenty  varieties 
of  this  grain  are  grown,  they  being  divided  into  the 
two  groups  of  paga,  or  highland  rice,  and  macan,  or 
lowland  rice.  The  former  needs  no  irrigation,  and  is 
sown  broadcast  on  the  hills,  needing  only  to  be  hoed 
and  weeded.  Sown  at  the  end  of  May,  it  ripens  in 
from  three  to  four  and  a  half  months,  and  is  harvested 
ear  by  ear. 

The  macan  rice  is  of  much  the  finer  quality,  the 
white-grained  variety  being  the  most  esteemed.  It 
yields  twice  the  crop  of  paga  rice,  but  only  one  crop 
can  be  grown  annually,  while  three  crops  of  the  latter 
may  be  raised.  Macan  rice  is  sown  in  June,  in  a  plot 
saturated  with  water  until  it  is  a  mass  of  mud.  After 
six  weeks  the  plants  are  pulled  up  by  the  roots  and 
transplanted  in  the  fields,  which  are  kept  flooded 
during  the  growth  of  the  plant.  The  rains  are  usu- 
ally depended  upon  for  irrigation,  but  where  regular 
irrigation  is  resorted  to  two  crops  can  be  grown  an- 
nually, with  a  much  larger  percentage  of  yield. 

When  ripe  each  ear  is  cut  separately,  and  the  paddy 
is  heaped  into  stacks.  After  six  weeks  the  threshing 
takes  place,  either  by  the  use  of  the  flail,  by  treading, 
or  by  driving  ponies  over  the  paddy  heaps.  No  ma- 
chines are  in  use  for  husking  the  grain,  this  being 
generally  performed  in  a  large  mortar,  in  which  it  is 
beaten  with  a  pestle.  There  is,  however,  a  primitive 
wooden  mill  for  this  purpose,  worked  by  buffaloes,  and 
steam-  and  water-power  are  being  brought  into  use. 


I 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  453 

Tlie  rice-growers  of  the  Philippines  have  many  in- 
sect enemies  to  contend  with,  one  of  the  worst  being 
the  locust,  in  its  occasional  migrations.  Yet  the  usual 
product  is  large,  one  quinon  (about  seven  acres)  of  land 
yielding  from  250  to  300  cavans  (about  ninety-six 
pounds  each)  of  rice;  which  product  might  be  greatly 
increased  with  proper  irrigation.  At  present  the  rains 
are  mainly  trusted  to.  About  250  pounds  of  rice  will 
serve  a  family  of  five  persons  for  a  month. 

Formerly,  rice  was  the  main  crop  of  the  Philippines, 
and  was  largely  exported;  Sual  being  an  important 
port  for  its  sHrpment  to  China.  Sual  is  now  a  mere 
village,  and  nearly  half  the  rice  consumed  is  imported. 
This  is  due  to  the  extension  of  the  sugar  culture,  whose 
larger  profits  have  greatly  reduced  the  growth  of  rice. 

COFFEE. 

The  culture  of  cofifee  was  begun  early  in  the  nine- 
teenth century,  in  a  little  valley  in  northern  Luzon. 
The  plant  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  been  previously 
unknown  on  the  island,  and  to  have  spread  through 
the  agency  of  a  small  wild  animal,  which  ate  the  berries 
and  scattered  the  seed.  As  a  result  it  rapidly  extended 
over  the  whole  island,  and  many  of  the  plants,  whose 
origin  is  thus  accounted  for,  are  still  in  bearing,  thou- 
sands of  pounds  of  coffee-berries  being  gathered  from 
the  wild  bushes.  Others,  however,  think  the  plant 
indigenous. 

The  culture  is  now  scattered  throughout  an  area  of 
wide  extent,  and  the  amount  of  colTee  produced  is  un- 
known. Many  of  the  natives  have  a  few  bushes  in 
their  front  yards,  shaded  by  plantain-trees,  and  yield- 
ing perhaps  four  or  five  bushels  of  berries.    These  are 


454  OUR    ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

bought  by  speculators  to  help  in  making  up  cargoes. 
The  merchants  of  Manila  give  the  preference  to  the 
coflfee  raised  in  Cavite,  Laguna,  and  Batangas,  the  last- 
named  province  giving  the  greatest  yield.  The  coffee 
of  Mindanao  is  sent  to  market  without  being  examined 
and  sorted,  good  and  bad  beans  being  mingled.  The 
natives  buy  this  at  low  prices,  but  it  has  no  European 
demand. 

The  coffee  of  the  Philippines  has  a  fine  aroma,  not 
equal  to  that  of  the  Mocha  or  Java,  but  capable  of 
being  improved  by  proper  care  in  cultivation.  This, 
however,  is  rarely  given,  there  being  much  careless- 
ness in  selecting  sites,  in  planting,  in  pruning,  and  in 
preparing  the  beans  for  market,  good  and  bad  being 
often  left  together.  The  latter  is  due  in  a  measure  to 
the  natives,  whose  house-plot  coffee  is  poorly  prepared. 

The  plant,  as  elsewhere,  is  grown  on  high  ground, 
and  carefully  shaded  until  mature;  a  coffee  plantation 
in  the  Philippines  presenting  the  same  features  of  at- 
traction as  described  in  those  of  Cuba.  This  is  espe- 
cially the  case  in  the  vicinity  of  Lipa,  where  there  are 
many  coffee  estates,  and  the  planters  are  usually  very 
careful  in  the  culture  of  the  plant  and  the  preparation 
for  market  of  the  bean.  The  Philippine  coffee,  like 
that  of  other  regions,  is  gathered  by  hand,  and  the  fruit 
laid  in  heaps  for  a  few  days  before  washing.  In  this 
way  the  pulp  is  largely  got  rid  of.  The  berries  are 
now  placed  in  a  mortar  and  pounded  until  the  clean 
beans  emerge;  these,  packed  in  hemp  bags,  are  sent 
to  Manila  for  sale. 

The  Philippine  archipelago,  from  the  extent  of  its 
highlands  and  the  suitable  character  of  much  of  its 
soil,  is  well  adapted  to  the  coffee  culture,  which  could 


I 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  455 

readily  be  greatly  extended.  The  industry  was  hin- 
dered by  the  Spanish  government,  which  laid  extra 
licenses  on  the  planting  of  coffee  and  a  heavy  import 
duty  on  the  machinery  which  has  been  of  late  years 
introduced  to  aid  in  preparing  it  for  market.  A  release 
from  these  exactions  will  give  encouragement  to  the 
planters,  and  doubtless  lead  to  a  large  increase  in  the 
crop. 

OTHER  VEGETABLE  PRODUCTS. 

The  areca  palm  is  extensively  cultivated  for  its  fruit, 
the  betel-nut,  which  most  of  the  natives  deem  almost 
a  necessity  of  existence.  It  is  used  to  such  an  extent 
that  Manila  possesses  nearly  a  thousand  warehouses 
and  shops  for  its  sale,  or  for  that  of  the  buyo  or  siri 
leaf  in  which  the  betel  is  wrapped  for  chewing,  and  the 
lime  used  with  it.  The  buyo  palm  is  largely  grown  for 
its  leaf,  which  has  a  pungent  taste,  and  is  not  used 
solely  in  connection  with  the  betel-nut,  but  is  con- 
sidered a  remedy  in  some  diseases.  It  is  believed  to  be 
an  antidote  to  snake  poison  when  bruised  and  laid  on 
the  wound. 

Another  palm  of  much  economic  value  is  the  nipa, 
a  swamp  plant  which  resembles  a  gigantic  fern.  Its 
leaves  are  used  for  thatch,  and  the  sap  from  its  fruit- 
stalks  yields  a  favorite  wine.  The  juice  of  the  sugar- 
cane is  used  for  a  similar  purpose,  a  strong  but  pure 
brandy  being  distilled  from  it,  to  whose  use  the  na- 
tives are  much  addicted. 

Though  the  Philippines  possess  all  the  important 
tropical  fruits,  no  attention  is  paid  to  their  culture, 
except  in  the  case  of  the  banana,  which  is  kept  trimmed 
and  free  from  weeds.  The  guava,  mango,  custard- 
apple,  and  many  other  fruits  grow  wild  on  the  hills 


456  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

and  even  within  the  town  Hmits,  and  are  gathered  by 
the  natives  as  needed.  The  wild  mango  of  the  PhiHp- 
pines  is  one  of  the  most  deHcious  of  fruits,  and  the 
same  may  be  said  of  the  durian,  if  one  can  endure  the 
odor  of  putrefying  flesh  emitted  by  its  outer  skin. 

The  banana  grows  both  wild  and  under  cultivation, 
seventy-seven  varieties  being  claimed  for  the  islands. 
In  addition  to  its  great  utility  as  a  food-plant,  it  yields 
a  fibre  which  the  natives  weave  into  cloth,  and  from 
which  they  make  a  coarse  paper.  The  cacao-tree  was 
early  introduced  from  Mexico,  and  has  long  been 
grown  in  the  orchards  and  gardens  of  the  monasteries, 
the  friars  being  famous  for  their  chocolate.  There  is 
a  chocolate  factory  at  Manila  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  do  not  care  to  prepare  this  favorite  substance  for 
themselves;  but  in  the  country  the  planters  usually 
grow  their  own  trees  and  have  their  chocolate-paste 
made  at  home. 

Aside  from  the  special  crops  of  the  island,  and  the 
fruits  which  form  an  important  part  of  the  food  pro- 
ducts, agriculture  has  made  little  progress;  and  one 
of  our  consuls  makes  the  strong  statement  that  there  is 
not  a  farm  in  the  Philippines  which  will  compare  with 
the  worst  in  America.  The  culture  is  of  the  most 
primitive  kind,  the  land  being  ploughed  with  a  sharp- 
ened stick  drawn  by  the  buffalo,  and  the  lumps  broken 
by  a  heavy  frame  with  long  wooden  teeth.  Fertilizers 
are  never  applied. 

The  natives,  under  Spanish  regulations,  could  not 
own  land,  but  simply  held  it  subject  to  certain  condi- 
tions of  cultivation.  Outside  the  tobacco  districts — 
in  which  they  were  obliged  to  confine  their  chief  atten- 
tion to  the  leaf — they  were  required  to  plant  useful 


AGRICULTURAL   INDUSTRIES.  457 

trees,  to  raise  maize,  wheat,  rye,  vegetables,  cotton, 
and  pepper,  to  grow  fruit  in  their  orchards,  keep  all 
kinds  of  suitable  cattle,  and  have  at  least  twelve  hens, 
one  cock,  and  a  sucking  pig.  Should  they  fail  in  these 
conditions,  the  land  could  be  confiscated  in  two  years. 

These  conditions  were  not  well  complied  with;  some 
of  them  were  impossible.  Maize  has  been  grown  to 
some  extent;  probably  not  over  10,000  bushels  of  un- 
shelled  corn  per  year.  This  is  mostly  sold  in  Manila, 
boiled  or  roasted.  Some  wheat  is  grown  in  the  hill 
country.  Hay  is  unknown,  animals  being  fed  on  fresh 
grass,  a  crisp,  succulent  variety  grown  in  swampy 
fields  and  sold  by  natives  in  the  streets. 

Cotton  is  produced  in  quantities  sufficient  for  home 
use.  It  is  easily  and  cheaply  grown,  and  might  be 
made  an  important  article  of  export.  Indigo  plants 
grow  in  the  greatest  luxuriance,  needing  little  labor 
in  their  cultivation,  and  returning  large  profits  on  the 
capital  involved.  The  indigo  is  famous  for  its  superior 
quality. 

We  have  already  spoken  of  the  products  of  the 
forests.  Aside  from  the  many  valuable  varieties  of 
hard-wood  lumber,  there  are  other  products  to  which 
passing  reference  may  be  made.  Sapan-wood  yields 
a  rich  crimson  dye,  which  is  much  esteemed,  though 
less  permanent  than  that  of  the  cochineal.  The  bark 
of  the  dita  tree  yields  an  alkaloid  resembling  quinine 
in  its  effects,  though  not  so  strong.  The  perfume 
called  ylang-ylang  is  made  from  the  flowers  of  a  tree 
of  the  same  name.  The  cocoa-palm  yields  the  oil 
used  in  lighting  houses  and  streets,  for  lubricating  and 
cooking  purposes.  In  many  provinces  the  tree  is 
grown  for  the  oil  alone,  which  is  used  at  home  or 


458  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

shipped  to  Europe.  In  the  European  dimate  it  be- 
comes solid  and  is  made  into  soap  and  candles.  There 
is  a  large  exportation  of  copra,  the  dried  meat  of  the 
cocoa-nut;  this  amounting  in  1897  to  801,437  pounds. 
This  goes  principally  to  Europe,  where  it  is  used  in 
soap-making.  Another  useful  tree  is  the  gutta-percha, 
which  is  abundant  in  some  of  the  islands,  especially  in 
Mindanao.  It  has  hitherto  been  little  utilized,  but 
might  become  a  valuable  commercial  product. 

LIVE-STOCK. 

Little  remains  to  be  said  concerning  the  domestic 
animals  of  the  Philippines.  We  have  already  described 
the  buffalo,  the  favorite  working  animal  of  the  Philip- 
pine farmer,  by  whom  it  is  almost  universally  em- 
ployed. BufYalo  meat  is  valued  by  the  natives  as  an 
article  of  food,  but  Europeans  find  it  tough  and  rather 
tasteless.  Cattle  are  extensively  raised  on  some  of 
the  islands  for  beef;  Masbate,  for  instance,  being 
mainly  devoted  to  grazing.  They  are  of  a  small 
humped  variety. 

Dairying  is  almost  unknown,  the  Filipinos  never 
eating  butter  or  any  other  dairy  product.  As  a  result, 
milk  is  a  very  scarce  and  dear  article,  being  used  only 
in  a  few  towns.  Fresh  butter  and  cheese  are  not  to  be 
had  at  any  price,  they  never  being  made.  The  only 
butter  used  is  a  very  dear  article  imported  from  Lon- 
don in  bottles.  Goats  are  raised  in  large  numbers, 
being  prized  alike  for  their  milk  and  their  flesh.  Pigs 
also  are  very  common,  being  kept  in  every  native  vil- 
lage, while  there  are  large  numbers  of  wild  ones. 

Poultry  are  abundant,  and  the  artificial  hatching  of 
ducks  is  a  common  industry  in  some  localities.     Pa- 


AGRICULTURAL    INDUSTRIES.  459 

teros,  for  instance,  a  village  near  Manila,  seems  to 
derive  its  name  from  its  multitude  of  ducklings  thus 
hatched  (patos),  which  are  seen  in  vast  numbers  along 
the  banks  of  the  Pasig.  They  are  fed  on  small  shell- 
fish found  in  abundance  in  the  neighboring  Bay  Lake. 
The  eggs,  as  laid  and  collected,  are  placed  in  large 
receptacles  containing  warm  paddy  husk,  whose  tem- 
perature is  kept  uniform.  A  canvas  covering  is  spread 
over  the  heap,  and  one  man  sufifices  to  attend  to  a  large 
number  of  frames,  from  which  the  ducklings  are  re- 
moved as  soon  as  hatched.  They  may  be  seen  in  hun- 
dreds running  about  in  shallow  bamboo  baskets,  wait- 
ing to  be  carried  to  the  river  banks.  In  that  climate 
they  need  no  further  care.  Along  the  Pasig  almost 
every  cottage  with  a  river  front  possesses  its  patero, 
or  duckery. 


VIIL  MANUFACTURES  AND  COMMERCE. 

CIGARS. 

Of  the  manufactures  of  the  PhiHppines,  as  in 
Cuba,  tobacco  stands  at  the  head,  the  cigar  factories 
of  Manila  vying  with  those  of  Havana  as  pubHc  spec- 
tacles. Binondo,  the  trading  centre  of  Manila,  is  the 
seat  of  this  industry,  there  being  twelve  large  cigar 
and  cigarette  factories,  employing  about  ii,ooo  hands, 
besides  many  small  factories.  The  Compania  General 
de  Tabacos  has  a  capital  of  $15,000,000,  and  employs 
nearly  10,000  hands, — 6000  on  plantations  and  2500 
men  and  900  women  in  the  factories.  It  produces  an- 
nually 80,000,000  cigars,  400,000,000  cigarettes,  and 
5,000,000  pounds  of  tobacco.  There  are  six  other 
Spanish  firms,  several  German,  Swiss,  and  English, 
and  a  number  of  Chinese. 

The  factories  present  a  scene  of  the  most  bustling 
activity,  with  their  thousands  of  operatives,  largely 
young  girls.  The  working  hours  are  from  seven  to 
twelve  in  the  morning  and  from  two  to  five  in  the 
afternoon.  The  hours  of  work  are  often  followed  by 
a  plunge  into  Manila  Bay,  where  thousands  of  the 
operatives  may  be  seen  disporting  themselves  in  the 
surf,  diving,  tumbling,  and  shouting  like  children. 

The  scene  inside  the  factories  is  an  interesting  one, 

every  stage,  from  the  baled  tobacco  to  the  finished 

cigar,  being  rapidly  passed  through.    Experts  separate 

the  leaf  into  grades  of  color  and  quality  with  remark- 

460 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     461 

able  rapidity,  and  the  whole  series  of  processes  may  be 
seen  in  quick  succession,  till  the  finished  article  is 
packed  in  cedar  boxes,  properly  labelled,  and  ready  for 
market.  Many  efforts  have  been  made  to  use  less  ex- 
pensive woods  for  cigar-boxes,  but  nothing  seems  to 
supply  the  place  of  cedar,  which  either  preserves  the 
aroma  of  the  leaf  or  adds  a  flavor  of  its  own. 

While  the  cigars  are  hand-made,  the  cigarettes  are 
made  by  machines,  each  of  which  is  capable  of  turning 
out  12,000  a  day.  The  leaf  is  divided  into  many  dif- 
ferent colors,  though  only  five  are  known  to  the  trade, 
— Maduro,  Colorado  maduro,  Colorado,  Colorado 
claro,  and  Claro.  Of  these,  Spain  takes  the  strong, 
dark  brands;  England  takes  every  shade;  America 
prefers  the  lighter  colors.  In  1897  the  total  export  of 
cigars  was  156,916,000,  in  addition  to  the  large  home 
consumption.  The  leaf  tobacco  exported  amounted 
to  801,437  pounds. 

OTHER  MANUFACTURES. 

Very  little  remains  to  be  said  about  the  Philippine 
manufactures.  Manila  possesses  some  industries  in- 
troduced by  Europeans,  including  a  Spanish  brewery, 
a  German  cement  factory,  and  Swiss  umbrella  and  hat 
factories,  the  latter  making  felt  and  straw  hats.  There 
are  a  number  of  rope-factories,  worked  mainly  by 
hand.  A  cotton-mill,  with  £40,000  capital  (English) 
and  6000  spindles,  is  the  most  recent  addition  to  the 
productive  industries. 

The  natives  possess  few  manufactures,  though 
fabrics  of  several  kinds  are  woven  by  them  on  simple 
hand-looms.  These  are  made  of  bamboo,  and  are  very 
numerous,  about  60,000  of  them  being  computed  in 


462  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  province  of  Iloilo,  where  there  is  one  in  nearly 
every  house.  They  are  used  for  the  manufacture  of 
tissues  of  silk,  cotton,  hemp,  and  the  exquisitely  fine 
piiia,  the  fibre  from  which  is  obtained  from  the  pine- 
apple leaf,  and  forms  a  thread  so  fine  that  it  is  neces- 
sary to  protect  it,  by  the  use  of  a  fine  gauze,  from  even 
the  agitation  of  the  wind. 

This  beautiful  tissue  is  made  most  largely  in  the 
vicinity  of  Iloilo,  and  is  sent  to  the  capital  to  be  em- 
broidered. It  is  so  costly  when  finished  that  for  the 
more  elaborate  specimens  fabulous  prices  are  paid, — 
one  or  two  ounces  of  gold,  for  instance,  for  a  small 
handkerchief.  It  forms  an  essential  part  of  the  dress 
of  the  richer  natives  and  mestizos. 

A  texture  of  less  fineness  is  made  from  a  mixture 
of  abaca  and  pifia  fibre,  and  a  very  coarse  one  from 
abaca.  This  is  used  for  sails,  rough  garments,  etc. 
Mats  are  extensively  produced,  some  of  them  beauti- 
ful, being  of  various  colors  and  ornamented  in  gold  and 
silver  patterns.     In  the  Philippines  all  sleep  on  mats. 

Hats  of  split  bamboo  are  largely  manufactured,  and 
the  other  native  arts  include  furniture-making,  wood- 
carving,  the  manufacture  of  wooden  clogs,  and  the 
production  of  various  other  articles  of  art  or  necessity. 
The  natives  possess  the  art  of  softening  and  manufac- 
turing horn;  produce  fibre-wrought  hats  and  cigar- 
cases  of  various  colors,  of  which  the  white  are  the 
most  costly  and  beautiful ;  and  work  skilfully  in  metal, 
making  chains  of  gold  and  silver  of  great  fineness. 
The  skill  of  the  Moros  in  producing  their  highly  tem- 
pered steel  weapons  has  been  already  spoken  of.  The 
tools  and  implements  used  by  the  natives  in  manu- 
facture are  all  of  the  simplest  and  rudest  character. 


MANUFACTURES   AND   COMMERCE.     463 

The  women  have  long,  slender  fingers,  very  fine  and 
delicate  in  touch,  and  many  of  the  articles  produced 
by  them  are  models  of  delicacy.  These  include  the 
pifia  fabrics,  hats,  cigarette  holders,  articles  of  em- 
broidery, and  other  artistic  products. 

COMMERCE. 

It  was  with  the  greatest  difficulty  that  foreign  trade 
forced  its  way  into  the  Philippines  against  Spanish 
distrust  and  opposition,  which  threw  every  available 
obstacle  in  its  way.  Though  constant  pressure  from 
without  gradually  brought  about  a  more  liberal  state 
of  afifairs,  useless  and  obstructive  formalities  and  vexa- 
tious delays  continued  to  stand  in  the  way  of  trade, 
and  the  development  of  the  colony  seemed  an  idea 
foreign  to  the  intellect  of  the  Spanish  authorities. 

It  was  not  until  within  the  nineteenth  centm-y  that 
foreign  ships  were  permitted  to  enter  the  waters  of 
Manila  or  foreign  merchants  to  reside  within  its  walls. 
Yet  the  demands  of  commerce  in  time  put  an  end  to 
this  mediaeval  policy,  and  an  American  firm,  Russell 
&  Sturgis,  was  admitted  by  favor  of  the  governor- 
general.  Others  followed,  and  to-day  there  are  about 
twenty  British  and  as  many  German  firms  in  Manila, 
with  a  number  of  firms  of  other  nationalities. 

The  great  house  of  Russell  &  Sturgis  long  con- 
tinued at  the  head  of  foreign  business,  and  was  the 
mainspring  of  Philippine  enterprise,  opening  up  the 
sugar  culture  in  the  island  of  Negros,  and  investing  a 
large  sum  of  money  in  agricultural  operations.  It 
advanced  its  capital  freely  to  the  native  planters,  who 
in  return  victimized  the  house.  As  a  result,  in  1875 
the  great  firm  failed,  to  the  amazement  and  consterna- 


464  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

tion  of  the  people  and  the  wrecking  of  business  for 
several  years.  But  the  minor  firms  which  it  had 
thrown  into  the  shade  gradually  took  its  place  and 
business  regained  prosperity.  These,  now  mainly 
English,  German,  and  Spanish  houses,  pursue  the 
same  course  of  advancing  money  to  the  natives  to  aid 
them  in  getting  out  their  crops.  While  this  is  accom- 
panied with  considerable  risk,  it  is  justified  by  the  large 
profits  that  attend  success. 

In  1869  a  royal  decree  was  passed  abolishing  export 
duties  and  doing  away  with  the  severe  port  charges 
which  had  hampered  trade.  But  various  vexatious 
regulations  continued,  tending  to  drive  foreign  trade 
from  Manila,  and  as  late  as  1886  the  authorities  de- 
clared foreign  trade  to  be  prejudicial  to  the  "  material 
interests  of  the  country." 

The  conservatism  and  ignorance  of  the  natives  have 
also  stood  in  the  way  of  commercial  progress.  They 
could  not  be  brought  to  understand  tBat  changes  in 
quotations  were  the  result  of  world-wide  influences, 
but  charged  them  to  the  caprice  and  avarice  of  the 
merchants,  and  often  lost  by  withholding  their  goods 
to  await  higher  quotations.  They  had  no  fixed  price 
for  their  products,  preferring  the  Oriental  system  of 
bargaining.  In  this  they  were  steadily  overreached  by 
the  shrewd  Chinese  dealers,  with  whom  they  usually 
came  into  contact.  The  same  system  was  adopted 
by  large  mercantile  houses,  which  seldom  stated  prices, 
purchasing  the  produce  of  the  natives  through  middle- 
men familiar  with  their  customs  and  knowing  how  to 
deal  with  them. 

In  1891  Spain  laid  a  protective  tarifif  on  the  Philip- 
pine trade;  the  result  being  that  the  bulk  of  the  traffic 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     465 

was  diverted  to  the  home  country,  the  Manchester 
cotton  goods,  which  had  been  imported  in  large  quan- 
tities from  England,  being  replaced  by  similar  goods 
of  Barcelona  manufacture.  Iron  goods  and  hardware 
continued  to  come  from  Germany  and  Switzerland, 
while  American  trade  was  principally  restricted  to 
fiour  and  kerosene  oil. 

The  trade  of  the  islands  may  be  briefly  summarized. 
In  1841  the  total  imports  were  valued  at  $3,230,000; 
the  exports  at  $4,370,000.  In  1885  the  imports  had 
gained  the  much  larger  figure  of  $19,171,468;  the  ex- 
ports, $24,553,686.  These  figures  are  given  in  the 
silver  currency  of  the  island,  and  would  need  a  reduc- 
tion to  accord  with  standard  gold  values.  The  ex- 
port duties,  as  reimposed  in  1891  and  increased  in 
1896,  caused  a  falling  off.  in  trade;  while  on  August 
21,  1897,  a  decree  went  into  effect  under  which  an 
extraordinary  customs  duty  of  six  per  cent,  ad  valorem 
was  imposed  on  all  merchandise  imports. 

For  a  number  of  years  past  the  trade  of  the  United 
States  with  the  Philippines  has  steadily  declined.  The 
export  trade  has  always  been  insignificant,  and  has  of 
late  years  continued  to  fall  off.  The  import  trade  has 
suffered  a  considerable  decline,  sinking  from  $10,268,- 
278  in  1888  to  $4,383,740  in  1897.  In  1896  the  im- 
ports of  this  country  from  the  Philippines  were  nearly 
confined  to  sugar  and  hemp, — sugar,  $2,270,902; 
hemp,  $2,499,404;  other  articles,  $212,551;  total  im- 
ports, $4,982,857.  The  exports  included  mineral  oil. 
$89,258;  cotton  goods,  $9714;  varnish,  $1500;  other 
articles,  $61,169;   total  exports,  $161,641. 

The  trade  of  the  Philippines  with  the  several  com- 
mercial countries  is  summarized  in  the  following  table, 

30 


466  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

the  date  of  latest  full  returns  for  each  country,  at  the 
time  the  table  was  made,  being  given: 

Exports.  Imports. 

Great  Britain  (1897) ^6,223,426  ^2,063,598 

United  States  (1897) 4,383,740  94,597 

Japan  (1897) 1,332,300  92,823 

China  (1897) S6,I37  97,71? 

New  South  Wales  (1897) .    .    .    .         119,550  176,858 

France  (1896) 1,990,297  389,796 

Germany  (1896) 223,720  774,928 

Belgium  ( 1 896) 272,240  45,660 

India  (1896) 7,755  81,156 

Straits  Settlement  (1896)  ....         274,130  236,001 

Victoria  (1896) 180  178,370 

Spain  (1895) 4,819,344  4,973,589 

$19,702,819  $9,205,093 

The  exports  from  Spain,  which  in  1889  aggregated 
only  $890,000,  in  1897  reached  nearly  $8,000,000, 
principally  cotton  fabrics.  The  United  States  ex- 
ported, in  addition  to  the  classes  of  goods  named, 
bread-stufTs,  chemicals,  and  iron  and  steel  goods;  and 
imported,  in  addition  to  sugar  and  hemp,  cigars,  to- 
bacco, woods,  hides,  shells,  cofifee,  and  indigo. 

The  decline  in  American  influence  in  the  Philip- 
pines, from  its  maximum  previous  to  1875  to  its  mini- 
mum at  a  recent  date,  is  doubtless  destined  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  an  important  advance  as  the  American 
soldier  is  followed  by  the  American  merchant  and 
planter.  The  enterprise  of  the  Americans  is  already 
shown  in  the  newspapers  published  by  them,  including 
"The  Manila  Times,"  "The  Manila  American,"  and 
"  The  American  Soldier,"  whose  advertisements  show 
that  the  man  of  business  has  followed  the  soldier  into 
the  Philippine  capital,  and  that  American  push  and 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     467 

enterprise  are  already  making  themselves  felt  in  the 
business  world.  This  significant  beginning  will,  no 
doubt,  be  quickly  followed  by  an  important  commer- 
cial progress,  and  the  resources  of  the  islands  be  de- 
veloped to  a  degree  undreamed  of  in  the  days  of 
Spanish  control. 

FINANCES. 

The  currency  of  the  Philippine  Islands  is  on  a  silver 
basis,  no  gold  having  been  in  general  circulation  for 
more  than  twenty  years.  In  fact,  practically  the  only 
money  in  general  circulation  is  the  Mexican  dollar  of 
a  date  prior  to  1877.  In  1897  a  local  currency  of 
$6,000,000  in  silver  was  coined  in  Spain  and  sent  to 
the  islands.  It  was  lighter  in  weight  than  the  Mexican 
coins,  but  was  quickly  absorbed,  owing  to  the  scarcity 
of  money.  The  Banco  Espaiiol  Filipono  has  issued 
notes  based  on  silver,  which  are  now  outstanding  to 
the  value  of  about  $2,500,000. 

The  original  currency  consisted  of  gold  coins  of  the 
values  of  one  dollar,  two  dollars,  and  four  dollars,  with 
Mexican  and  Spanish  silver  dollars,  the  latter  having 
a  limited  circulation.  But  the  recent  depreciation  in 
the  value  of  silver  caused  so  rapid  an  exportation  of 
gold  and  importation  of  Mexican  silver  that  the 
Spanish  government  sought  to  check  this  movement, 
issuing  a  decree  in  the  spring  of  1898  in  which  the  im- 
portation of  silver  dollars  of  a  date  later  than  1877 
was  prohibited.  This  law  had  no  long  life,  for  the 
United  States  quickly  succeeded  Spain  in  the  islands, 
and  American  coin  will  quickly  make  its  way  into  the 
channels  of  Philippine  commerce.  After  the  American 
occupation  of  Manila,  the  banks  were  given  permis- 


468  OUR   ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

sion  to  import  silver  freely,  with  the  result  that  the 
rates  of  exchange  soon  assumed  a  more  stable  basis. 

Under  the  Spanish  prohibition  of  silver  importation 
there  was  a  large  fluctuation  in  the  value  of  coin,  the 
amount  of  money  needed  varying  in  the  different  sea- 
sons. In  the  height  of  the  sugar  season  there  is  a 
sharp  increase  in  the  demand  for  money.  In  the  off 
season  the  demand  is  light.  It  was  not  uncommon 
under  Spanish  rule  for  silver  to  go  to  a  premium  of 
ten  or  twelve  per  cent.,  which  was  met  by  active  smug- 
gling of  silver  into  the  islands,  an  industry  practised 
largely  by  the  rich  Chinese  mestizos.  This  illicit  in- 
dustry is  at  an  end  now  that  the  hinderance  to  silver 
importation  is  removed. 

Of  the  quantity  of  money  in  circulation  in  the  Philip- 
pines there  are  no  trustworthy  estimates.  In  addition 
to  the  $6,000,000  coined  in  Spain  in  1897  and  the 
$2,500,000  of  bank-note  circulation,  there  are  about 
$10,000,000  in  smaller  coins,  and  probably  from 
$20,000,000  to  $25,000,000  in  Mexican  dollars,  making 
a  total  of  approximately  $40,000,000  to  $45,000,000. 

The  question  of  the  future  currency  of  the  islands 
is  an  important  one  to  business  men,  and  it  seems 
necessary  for  this  to  be  in  silver,  which  is  the  recog- 
nized currency  of  the  Oriental  countries,  with  which 
the  Philippines  largely  trade.  The  natives  will  have 
nothing  but  silver,  and  will  take  the  depreciated  Mexi- 
can dollar  in  preference  to  the  silver  dollar  of  the 
United  States.  The  soldiers  in  Manila,  who  are  paid 
in  gold,  find  it  necessary  to  exchange  it  for  silver  at 
some  of  the  local  banks.  A  special  coinage  of  silver 
dollars  may  prove  desirable  for  the  archipelago. 

Despite  the  severe  taxation  and  other  exactions  to 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     469 

which  the  Philippine  people  were  subjected  under 
Spanish  rule,  the  crown  derived  little  benefit  from  this 
distant  colony,  the  expenses  cutting  so  deeply  into  the 
receipts  that  only  a  few  hundred  thousand  dollars 
annually  reached  Spain.  The  islands  profited  no  more 
than  the  king,  very  little  being  spent  on  public  works. 
If  a  bridge  was  needed,  the  natives  of  the  vicinity  had 
to  provide  the  money  to  build  it.  If  a  road  was  re- 
quired, the  neighboring  people  were  obliged  to  open 
it  at  their  own  expense.  The  clergy  and  the  grasping 
officials  kept  the  cash  that  was  wrung  from  the  hands 
of  the  merchants  and  laboring  population;  the  of^cials 
seeming  to  have  occupied  themselves  chiefly  in  rob- 
bing the  people  with  one  hand  and  the  government 
with  the  other.  In  so  doing  they  sowed  a  crop  of 
hatred  of  everything  Spanish,  whose  fruit  we  have 
seen  in  the  recent  insurrection. 

THE  FUTURE  OUTLOOK. 

At  present  it  is  impossible  to  predict  the  industrial 
future  of  the  Philippine  Islands,  since  it  must  depend 
largely  on  the  relation  of  the  United  States  to  these 
islands,  which  is  far  from  clearly  defined.  Whatever 
the  political  connection  of  the  two  countries  may  be, 
there  is  the  strongest  probability  that  some  close  rela- 
tion will  exist  between  tliem,  and  that  the  Philippine 
industries  will  be  largely  under  the  influence  or  con- 
trol of  the  United  States.  This  country  will  assuredly 
be  the  leading  factor  in  Philippine  commerce,  and  will 
exert  a  stimulating  influence  upon  Philippine  agricul- 
ture and  other  interests,  the  capital  and  enterprise  of 
American  citizens  making  themselves  felt  widely 
throughout  the  archipelago. 


470  OUR   ISLAND    EMPIRE. 

The  important  interests  of  the  PhiHppines  are,  as 
may  be  seen  from  the  description  given,  two  in  char- 
acter, agriculture  and  mining, — the  former  far  from 
fully  developed,  the  latter  scarcely  developed  at  all. 
Preliminarily  to  the  development  of  these  interests  one 
thing  is  absolutely  needed, — improved  means  of  trans- 
portation. The  highroad  and  the  railroad  are  the 
agencies  demanded  alike  for  the  pacification  of  the 
people  and  the  advancement  of  their  interests,  and 
these,  the  railroad  in  particular,  are  very  likely  to  be 
the  first  things  to  which  American  enterprise  will 
direct  itself. 

If  the  islands  are  once  penetrated  by  railroad  lines 
and  supplied  with  good  roads,  not  only  will  their  agri- 
cultural industries  be  greatly  stimulated,  but  their 
mining  possibilities  will  be  developed  wherever  any  fair 
promise  of  profit  shall  declare  itself.  In  the  latter,  the 
scientist  needs  to  precede  the  engineer,  the  geology 
and  mineralogy  of  the  land  to  be  closely  observed,  and 
the  probable  output  of  coal,  iron,  gold,  and  other  min- 
erals to  be  studied  and  tested. 

But  the  present  great  promise  of  the  archipelago  lies 
in  the  direction  of  agriculture,  whose  possible  results, 
under  energetic  and  modernized  methods,  cannot  fail 
to  prove  enormous  in  amount  and  highly  profitable. 
One  thing,  however,  needs  to  be  borne  strictly  in 
mind.  The  Philippines  are  tropical  in  situation,  and 
have  all  the  defects  along  with  the  advantages  of  the 
tropics.  While  possessed  of  a  highly  fertile  soil,  in 
which  useful  plants  grow  luxuriantly  under  the  stimu- 
lus of  warm  sunshine  and  frequent  rains,  the  effect  of 
their  tropical  climate  on  the  human  population  is  as 
enervating  as  it  is  stimulating  to  plant  life.     Active 


MANUFACTURES  AND   COMMERCE.     471 

physical  labor  can  scarcely  be  looked  for  in  such  a 
climate,  and  the  energies  of  nature  are  likely  to  be 
vitiated  by  the  lack  of  energy  in  man. 

A  second  element  of  the  situation  is  the  little  which 
is  needed  in  such  a  climate  to  support  life  and  the 
slight  exertion  with  which  this  little  can  be  obtained. 
The  Philippine  natives  are  not  likely  to  work  ener- 
getically under  their  warm  sun  and  humid  atmosphere, 
when  they  can  so  readily  and  with  so  little  labor  obtain 
all  that  their  simple  life  demands. 

Only  three  ways  out  of  this  difficulty  present  them- 
selves, and  at  least  two  of  them  are  very  doubtful. 
The  one  is  to  raise  the  intellectual  level  of  the  Filipino 
by  education  and  example  and  increase  his  demands 
in  accordance  with  the  development  of  his  intelligence. 
If  he  requires  more,  he  will  work  more  vigorously  to 
obtain  it.  This  very  problematical  solution  of  the 
problem  may  be  contrasted  with  the  second  one,  the 
free  opening  of  the  country  to  the  Chinese,  a  people 
whose  industry  appears  unchecked  even  under  the 
most  adverse  conditions  of  nature.  Yet  to  flood  the 
country  with  Chinese  would  perhaps  cause  greater 
■  evils  than  it  would  cure,  and  it  certainly  seems  a 
remedy  not  to  be  employed  except  as  a  final  resort. 

The  third  and  most  promising  solution  of  the  prob- 
lem would  appear  to  be  a  reduction  of  the  amount  of 
human  labor  by  the  introduction  of  the  most  ad- 
vanced modern  methods  and  the  best  modern  ma- 
chinery. In  the  most  profitable  of  the  Philippine 
industries,  that  of  sugar  production  and  manufacture, 
primitive  methods  are  employed,  and  the  output  could 
be  at  once  more  than  doubled,  with  the  same  or  less 
labor  than  is  now  employed,  by  adopting  the  methods 


472  OUR    ISLAND   EMPIRE. 

in  use  in  Cuba  and  Hawaii.  Mechanical  power  can 
doubtless  be  applied  effectively  to  many  other  of  the 
agricultural  products  of  the  Philippines,  and  with 
the  present  sum  of  labor  an  output  considerably 
greater  in  quantity  and  in  many  cases  much  superior 
in  quality  could  be  counted  upon. 

In  the  question  here  considered,  the  moral  element 
must  enter  to  a  far  greater  degree  than  it  did  under 
Spanish  control.  It  is  the  duty  of  Americans  to  con- 
sider the  well-being  of  the  people  first,  and  material 
advantage  second;  and  only  where  the  profit  to  be 
derived  from  the  soil  coincides  with  the  just  treatment 
and  best  interests  of  the  Philippine  natives  should  it 
be  considered  at  all.  Profit  is  a  good  thing  to  take 
into  account;  human  happiness  and  liberty  a  better. 
Both  of  them  will  doubtless  be  considered  in  our  rela- 
tions with  these  distant  lands  and  people,  since  they 
can  readily  be  made  to  harmonize  if  justice  and  the 
sentiment  of  human  fellowship  be  made  their  com- 
bining element. 

But  speculative  suggestions  of  this  kind  are  of  little 
practical  value.  The  future  of  the  Philippines  is  a 
problem  which  only  time  can  solve.  All  that  can  posi- 
tively be  said  is  that  these  tropical  islands  possess 
enormous  productive  capabilities,  which  need  only  in- 
telligence and  energy  to  develop.  Under  American 
influence  and  control  such  a  development  can  scarcely 
fail  to  take  place, — at  least  to  some  considerable  de- 
gree,— and  these  fertile  islands  to  take  a  prominent 
place  in  the  circle  of  the  producing  countries  of  the 
earth. 


INDEX. 


•  • 


A. 

Abaca,  the,  443,  462. 

Acacia,  the,  254. 

Adjuntas,  203. 

Aetas,  the.  393,  440. 

Agno  River,  349. 

Agouti,  the,  38,  183. 

Agriculture,  124,  160,  161,  299,  314, 

443.  470- 

Aguadilla,  176,  201. 

Aguinaldo,  General,  330,  331. 

Aibonito,  169,  178,  203. 

Alameda  de  Paula,  73. 

Albay,  349  ;  hemp  of,  445. 

Albemarle,  Lord,  9. 

Algaroba  tree,  256. 

Alluvial  deposits,  27. 

American  commerce,  153-156,  221, 
318,  465. 

American  influence  in  the  Philip- 
pines, 466. 

American  mining  companies,  43. 

American  troops  at  Havana,  9. 

Americans  in  Hawaii,  297. 

Amusements,  120. 

Anda,  Simon  de,  329. 

Animals,  domestic,  27 ;  of  Cuba, 
38 ;  of  Porto  Rico,  183 ;  of 
Hawaii,  261 ;  of  the  Philippines, 
362. 

Annexation  of  Hawaii,  236. 

Aparri,  349,  414. 

Apo,  Mount,  337,  341. 


Apple  forest,  256. 

Aqueducts,  76,  301-303. 

Area  of  Cuba,  16 ;  of  Porto  Rico, 

171 ;  of  Hawaiian  Islands,  238 ; 

of  Philippine  Islands,  334. 
Areca  palm,  361 ;  use  of,  426,  455. 
Arecibo,  176,  201. 
Arolas,  General,  413,  438. 
Arrow-root,  311. 
Arroyo,  177,  202, 
Artemisia,  91. 
Artesian  wells,  303. 
Asphaltum,  Cuban,  45. 
Ateneo  Municipal,  398. 
Avocado  pear,  257. 
Awa  beverage,  260, 

B. 

Bacolod,  413, 

Bagani,  the,  437. 

Bahia  Honda,  83. 

Balabac  Island,  336. 

Bamboo,  the,  312  ;  uses  of,  359. 

Banana,  the,  35,  162,  255,  310,  361, 

455.  456. 
Banes,  82. 
Banks,  Cuban,  158 ;  Porto  Rican, 

223;  Hawaiian,  280;   Philippine, 

467. 
Baracoa,  8,  82 ;  anvil  of,  19. 
Basilan  Island,  336,  349. 
Batabano,  91 ;  sponges  of,  148. 
Batangas,  sugar  of,  448. 
Bathing  facilities,  74,  102. 

473 


474 


INDEX. 


Bathing,  Hawaiian,  289 ;  Philip- 
pine, 421,  425. 

Baths  of  Havana,  74. 

Bats,  Cuban,  39;   Philippine,  364. 

Bay  of  Guantanamo,  87. 

Bay  of  Havana,  64. 

Bay  of  Santiago,  83,  86. 

Bayamo,  93. 

Beans,  Cuban,  35. 

Beef,  curing  of,  145. 

Beer,  206,  226. 

Bees,  Cuban,  40,  147 ;  Porto  Rican, 
218 ;  Philippine,  366. 

Beggars,  Cuban,  iii. 

Bejucal,  92. 

Bellemar,  cave  of,  78,  79. 

Bells  of  Havana,  96. 

Bemba,  92. 

Beriberi,  355. 

Betel-nut,  426,  455. 

Binondo,  402 ;  activity  of,  403 ; 
dwellings  of,  403. 

Birds,  Cuban,  39;  Porto  Rican, 
184;  Hawaiian,  261,  265  ;  Leyson 
Island,  315  ;  Philippine,  364. 

Bird's  nest,  edible,  365. 

Bird's-nest  fern,  255. 

Bishop's  Garden,  74. 

Boats  on  Pasig  River,  399. 

Bohol  Island,  335,  345. 

Bombon  Lake,  340,  343. 

Bone-black,  141. 

Books,  100. 

Borneo  Island,  336. 

Botanical  Gardens,  68. 

Bowring,  Sir  John,  421,  430. 

Boys  and  girls,  103. 

Bread-fruit,  255. 

Breakfast,  Cuban,  105. 

Bricks,  226. 

British  in  Hawaii,  233. 

British  rovers,  328. 


British  take  Manila,  328. 
Buffalo,  Philippine,  362,  363,  458. 
Buildings  of  Havana,  66,  69-75. 
Bull-ring  in  Cuba,  64,  113;  in  the 

Philippines,  428. 
Bulusan  volcano,  340. 
Burias  Island,  335. 
Busuanga  Island,  336. 
Butter,  106,  458. 
Buyo  palm,  455. 

c. 

Cabaiia  fortress,  62. 

Cabanas,  83. 

Cabeza  de  Barangay,  374. 

Cables,  submarine,  56. 

Cabo  Rojo,  176,  202. 

Cacao-tree,  35,  131,  215,  361,  456. 

Cafes,  Havana,  75,  100. 

Cafetales,  26. 

Cagayan  River,  342,  349. 

Cagayan  tobacco,  450. 

Caibarien,  81  ;  sponges  of,  148. 

Calamianes  Islands,  335. 

Calapan,  414. 

Calcareous  deposits,  20. 

Calzades,  the,  54. 

Camaguey,  51,  93. 

Campo  de  Marte,  73. 

Canarreos  Islands,  24. 

Candelaria,  91. 

Candle-nut-tree,  253. 

Candles,  226. 

Canes,  361. 

Caparra,  165. 

Cape  Cruz,  20. 

Cape  Maisi,  20, 

Cape  San  Antonio,  20. 

Capiz,  414. 

Captain-general,  11,  49. 

Caraballos  Mountains,  337,  342. 

Carabao,  the,  362. 


INDEX. 


475 


Cardenas,  80. 

Cardenas  Bay  asphaltum,  45. 

Card-game,  Philippine,  429. 

Carnival  week,  114. 

Carob-tree,  256. 

Carriage-making,  151. 

Casino,  Havana,  72. 

Cassava,  the,  34. 

Castillo  de  la  Fuerza,  63. 

Castillo  de  la  Punta,  62. 

Cat,  wild,  40. 

Cathedral  of  Havana,  70,   84 ;    of 

Santiago,  84;  of  Manila,  401. 
Cattle  of  Cuba,  145,  161 ;  of  Porto 

Rico,  217 ;    of  Hawaii,  263 ;    of 

the  Philippines,  364.,  458. 
Cattle  ranges,  144 ;  farms,  144. 
Cattle,  wild,  263,  313. 
Cauto  River,  21. 
Cave  of  Bellemar,  78,  79. 
Caverns,  Cuban,  20,  22,  23. 
Caves   of   Baracoa,   83 ;    of   Porto 

Rico,  178. 
Cavit6,  347,  407. 
Cayey,  203. 
Cebu,  323,  348,  411 ;  churches  of, 

412;     history,    412;     commerce, 

412. 
Cebu  Island,  335 ;  deforestation  of, 

345.  356  ;  tobacco  of,  450. 
Ceiba  tree,  33. 
Celebes  Sea,  334,  336. 
Census  of  Cuba,  10  ;  of  Porto  Rico, 

192,212;  of  Hawaii,  268,  271. 
Children  in  Havana   103. 
Chimneys,  lack  of  99. 
Chinese  in  Cuba,  no:  in  Hawaii, 

280,  295;  in  the  Philippines,  325, 

329,  384,  471 ;   massacres  of,  325. 

327  ;  relations  to  native  women, 

385  ;  mestizos,  385  ;  shopkeepers, 

386  ;  hemj)  raisers,  445. 


Chocolate,  131,  456. 

Cholera  in  the  Philippines,  354. 

Christianity  in  Hawaii,  231  ;  in  the 
Philippines,  376,  379. 

Church  of  Santo  Nino,  411. 

Churches  of  Havana,  72 ;  attend- 
ance at,  112;  of  Hawaii,  271. 

Cienfuegos,  89  ;  buildings  of,  90. 

Cigar  cases,  462. 

Cigar  manufacture,  149-151,  450, 
460. 

Cigars,  Cuban,  149  ;  export  of  150; 
grades  of,  150;  Philippine,  450, 
460,  461. 

Cinco  Villas,  Los,  50. 

Cities  of  Cuba,  62-95 ;  of  Porto 
Rico,  194;  of  Hawaii,  278;  of 
the  Philippines,  399-415. 

Citizenship  in  Hawaii,  266. 

Clarifiers,  sugar,  141. 

Climate  of  Cuba,  28 ;  of  Porto 
Rico,  178 ;  of  Hawaii,  248 ;  of 
the  Philippines,  349. 

Cloak,  Hawaiian  feather,  261. 

Cloth,  Hawaiian,  260. 

Coal  in  Cuba,  44;  in  the  Philip- 
pines, 371. 

Coamo,  202. 

Coast  of  Cuba,  16,  25  ;  of  Porto 
Rico,  171,  177. 

Coast  trade,  Cuban,  56 ;  Porto 
Rican,  189  ;   Hawaiian,  275. 

Coastal  islands,  Cuban,  23. 

Cock-fighting,  Cuban,  44,  113; 
Philippine,  429. 

Cocoa-nut  palm,  35,  131,  182,  254; 
uses  of,  360  ;  oil,  457. 

Coffee,  10,  37,  105,  107;  gathering, 
128;  preparing  for  market,  128- 
130;  grades  of,  130;  wild,  257, 
453;  Hawaiian,  306,  307;  Phil- 
ippine, 453-455- 


476 


INDEX. 


Coflfee  culture,  124-131,  i6o,  213, 
299,  307-309,  454, 

Coffee  lands,  308. 

Coffee  plantations,  126. 

Cogon  grass,  356. 

Colon,  92. 

Colors  of  houses,  63,  66. 

Columbus  discovers  Cuba,  7  ;  tomb 
of,  71. 

Commerce  of  Cuba,  151-156;  of 
Porto  Rico,  219-223 ;  of  Hawaii, 
237,  275,  318,  327  ;  of  the  Philip- 
pines, 463-466. 

Company  of  the  Philippines,  330. 

Compliment,  language  of,  104. 

Concentration  policy  in  Cuba,  12. 

Consolacion  del  Sur,  91. 

Constitution  of  Hawaii,  234. 

Contract  labor,  296. 

Convicts,  Porto  Rican,  166. 

Cook,  Captain,  228,  286. 

Cooking,  105,  293. 

Coolie  labor,  60,  no. 

Copper,  42,  87,  185,  369. 

Copper  Mountains,  18. 

Copra,  458. 

Coral  islands,  23  ;  growth  of,  27. 

Coral  reefs,  177,  239,  337. 

Cortes,  expedition  of,  324. 

Cortes,  representation  in,  49. 

Cotton,  38,  217,  457. 

Cotton  goods  in  Philippines,  465. 

Countrymen,  habits  of,  116. 

Courts,  Cuban,  49 ;  Porto  Rican, 
186 ;  Philippine,  375. 

Crocodile,  365. 

Crops,  Cuban  farm,  117,  118. 

Cuba,  names  of,  7;  invasions.  9; 
population,  10;  oppression,  11; 
situation,  15 ;  extent,  15  ;  coast 
and  islands,  16,  23 ;  mountains, 
17 ;    commercial    advantage    of 


position,  17;  forests,  25,  32; 
climates,  28  ;  seasons,  28  ;  rains, 
28,  30;  diseases,  29  ;  food  plants 
and  fruits,  34 ;  animals,  38,  41 ; 
metals  and  minerals,  41 ;  re- 
forms, 48 ;  divisions,  48,  50 ; 
government,  49  ;  slavery,  51 ;  re- 
ligion, 52  ;  roads,  53  ;  railways, 
54  ;  steamships,  56 ;  telegraphs, 
57;  population,  57-60;  educa- 
tion, 60;  chief  towns,  62-95: 
agriculture,  124;  manufactures, 
149;  commerce,  151;  foreign 
trade,  151 ;  restrictions  on  trade, 
152  ;  value  of  estates,  156 ;  debt, 
157 ;  currency,  157 ;  revenue, 
157 ;  future  of,  159 ;  public  im- 
provements, 162;  advantage  to 
United  States,  164. 

Cuban  hatred  of  the  Spaniards,  11. 

Cuban  landscapes,  26 ;  atmosphere, 
30;  waters,  30;  representation, 
49;  women,  97;  habits  of  men, 
100 ;  area  of  cultivated  soil,  142  ; 
pasture  lands,  144. 

Cubitas  Mountains,  19,  93 ;  iron 
deposits  of,  43. 

Cuchillas,  the,  18. 

Culebra  Island,  175. 

Cultivated  plants,  34. 

Currency  of  Cuba,  157 ;  of  Porto 
Rico,  223 ;  of  Hawaii,  321 ;  of 
the  Philippines,  467. 

Custard-apple,  36. 

D. 

Dagupan,  382. 

Dances,  Hawaiian,  292;  Philippine, 

431- 
Debt  of  Cuba,  157. 
Deer  in  Cuba,  38  ;  in  Hawaii,  264; 

in  the  Philippines,  364. 


INDEX. 


477 


Departments  of  Porto  Rico,  186. 
Depopulation  of  Hawaii,  267. 
De  Soto,  Fernando,  8. 
Dewey,  Admiral,  331,  407. 
Diamond  Head,  282. 
Diana  Key  asphaltum,  45. 
Dinner,  Cuban,  106. 
Diseases    of    Cuba,    29,    163 ;    of 

Porto  Rico,  179 ;  of  Hawaii,  251 ; 

of  the  Philippines,  352. 
Districts,  Cuban  judicial,  48. 
Dita  alkaloid,  457. 
Dogs,   wild,  40,   183,   264 ;   edible, 

261,  263,  293. 
Dole,  Sanford  B.,  235. 
Dramas,  Philippine,  432. 
Dress,  Cuban,  98,  118,  119;  Porto 

Rican,     205 :     Hawaiian,     288 ; 

Philippine,  426. 
Drinking    in    Cuba,    85,    100;    in 

Porto  Rico,  206. 
Drinks,  Cuban,  106,  107. 
Drunkenness  in  Hawaii,  232,  261. 
Dry  season,  Cuban,  28  ;  Philippine, 

350. 

Duck  hatching,  artificial,  459. 

Dumaguete,  413. 

Durian,  the,  362,  455. 

Dutch  fleet  at  Manila,  328. 

Dwellings  of  Havana,  66 ;  of  coun- 
try, 119;  of  San  Juan,  197;  of 
Honolulu,  281 ;  of  Manila,  403  ; 
of  Philippine  natives,  423. 

E. 

Earthquakes  in  Cuba,  20;  in  the 
Philippines,  326,  341. 

Ecclesiastical  division  of  Cuba,  50. 

Edible  roots,  362  ;  bird's-nest,  365. 

Education  in  Cuba,  60;  in  Porto 
Rico,  192;  in  Hawaii,  231,  270, 
in  the  Philippines,  396-398. 


Eggers,  Baron,  181. 

El  Caney,  87. 

El  Cerro,  74. 

Electric  railways,  163. 

Elevation  of  land,  337. 

Engineer,  sugar  plantation,  140. 

Estate,  Cuban,  121-123. 

Eucalyptus,  256. 

Ewa,  302,  305. 

Execution  of  prisoners,  402. 

Exotic  plants  in  Hawaii,  310. 

Export  duties,  454. 

Exports  of  Cuba,  153-155 ;  of 
Porto  Rico,  219-221 ;  of  Hawaii, 
318 ;  of  the  Philippines,  465. 


F. 

Fajardo,  176,  202. 

Fan  in  Cuba,  the,  97, 

Farm  crops,  212. 

Farmers,  190. 

Farming,  456. 

Farms,  cultivation   of,  116;   clear- 
ing, 356. 

Feast  days,  431. 

Feasts,  Hawaiian,  263,  294. 

Feather  cloaks  and  fans,  264. 

Ferdinand  of  Spain,  decree  of,  10. 

Fertile  districts  of  Cuba,  21. 

Filipinos,  character  of,  386,  416; 
demeanor,  417  ;  philosophy,  418, 
422;  home-life,  419;  supersti- 
tions, 420;  courage,  420;  clean 
hness,  421 ;  litigation,  422  ;  \o 
of  music,  423  ;  progress  of,  4' 

Filipinas  Islas,  324.  '      ' 

^  ,  ,       ireat- 

Finances,      Cuban,      150; 

Rican,    167;       Hawaiian,^.     ' 
,  (jpme, 

Philippme,  467. 

Fireflies,    Cuban,   40;    Ph' 
o. 
366. 


478 


INDEX. 


Fish-market,  Havana,  75 ;  Hono- 
lulu, 280. 

Fishes,  Cuban,  40;  Porto  Kican, 
184;  Hawaiian,  262;  Philippine, 
366. 

Fishing  industry,  Cuban,  148. 

Flora,    Cuban,    32-38;    Philippine, 

357- 
Flowering  plants,  Cuban,  37. 
Food  in  Cuba,  105,  120;  in  Porto 

Rico,  206 ;  in  Hawaii,  280,  293 ; 

in  the  Philippines,  425. 
Food  plants,  34,  216. 
Foreman,  John,  378. 
Forest,  a  typical  Hawaiian,  254. 
Forests,    Cuban,    21,    25,    26,    37; 

Porto     Rican,    172,     181,     211; 

Hawaiian,  253,  258 ;    Philippine, 

346,  356-359- 
Fortifications   of    Havana,   3,   62; 

of  San  Juan,  195. 
Fossil  animals,  26. 
Fountain  of  India,  73. 
Freemasonry    in     Cuba,    104 ;     in 

Hawaii,  280. 
French  interference  in  Hawaii,  232. 
Friars  of  the  Philippines,  327,  376 ; 

character  of,   377 ;   abuses,  378 ; 

hated  by  natives,  330,  379;  con- 
trol of  education,  397. 
Fruits,  Cuban,  35,  161,  162;  Porto 

Rican,  216;  Hawaiian,  255-257, 

311 ;  Philippine,  361,  445. 


Cro 

Crop. 

Cuba 


G. 

anes,  the,  395. 


'jns,  Spanish  trade,  327. 
P°P'ling  in  Cuba,  loi.  112;  for- 
^'  ^^en  in  Santiago,  113;  in  the 
^"'^    >pines,  428, 
^  \  in  Cuba,  147. 


Gardens    of    Havana,    68,    74;    of 

Honolulu,  281. 
Geography  of  Cuba,  15 ;   of  Porto 

Rico,   171 ;   of  Hawaii,  237 ;    of 

the  Philippines,  334. 
Geology   of    Cuba,    26 ;    of  Porto 

Rico,  177;    of  Hawaii,  239;    of 

the  Philippines,  337. 
Gibara,  82. 

Gibaros  of  Porto  Rico,  the,  190, 191. 
Goats,  364,  458. 
Gobernadorcillo,  the  373. 
Gold  in  Cuba,  41 ;  in  Porto  Rico, 

184;  in  the  Philippines,  368. 
Government,  Cuban,  48-50;  Porto 

Rican,  168,  186;  Hawaiian,  266; 

Philippine,  373. 
Government  lands  in  Hawaii,  309. 
Governor-general,  10,  49,  373,  401. 
Grazing  plains,  Cuban,  164;  Porto 

Rican,  210;   Hawaiian,  309,  312 ; 

Philippine,  346. 
Guana,  92. 
Guanabacoa,    44,  102 ;    springs  of, 

46. 
Guanajay,  92. 
Guanica,  176. 
Guaniguanico  Islands,  24. 
Guano,  Leyson  Island,  315. 
Guantanamo,  87. 
Guava,  the,  35,  255,  361. 
Guayama,  177,  202. 
Guimaras  Island,  335,  348,  411. 
Gutta-percha,  458. 
Gypsum,  372. 

H. 

Halcon,  Mount,  337,  346. 
Haleakala  volcano,  242. 
Half-breeds,  Philippine,  384. 
Harbor    of    Cienfuegos,     90;     of 
Havana,  62,  151. 


INDEX. 


479 


Harbors,  Cuban,  i6,  151 ;  Porto 
Rican,  175 ;  Hawaiian,  247 ; 
Philippine,  347. 

Hard-wood    timber,  32,  182,  357- 

359- 

Harness-making,  151. 

Hats,  bamboo,  462. 

Havana,  settlement  of,  8  ;  captures, 
8,  9;  temperature,  28;  situation, 
62,  63  ;  defence,  62,  63  ;  bay,  64; 
suburbs,  64,  65  ;  population,  65  ; 
streets,  65-68,  74,  ic3 ;  odors,  65, 
67 ;  old  town,  65 ;  new  town, 
66;  houses,  67,  74;  noises,  ^^^7^'-^' 
96;  parks  and  gardens,  68,  74; 
prison,  69 ;  prado,  69 ;  theatres, 
69,  71 ;  churches,  70,  72 ;  libra- 
ries, 73  ;  El  Cerro  Avenue,  74 ; 
sea-baths,  75,  102 ;  markets,  75  ; 
water  supply,  76 ;  bells  of,  96 ; 
street  scenes,  108,  109;  stores, 
109 ;  harbor,  151 ;  shipping,  152. 

Havana  cigars,  150,  152. 

Hawaii,  situation  of,  237;  western 
side,  253 ;  eastern  side,  253 ; 
plants,  253 ;  animals,  261 ;  gov- 
ernment, 266  ;  population,  266  ; 
education,  270;  religion,  271; 
roads  and  railways,  273 ;  soil, 
301,  307.  309. 

Hawaiian  Electric  and  Cold  Stor- 
age Company,  317. 

Hawaiian  government,  228,  233; 
independence,  233 ;  legislature, 
234;  annexation,  235;  republic, 
23s ;  area,  238  ;  names  and  posi- 
tions of  islands,  238 ;  geology, 
239 ;  mountains,  239,  240 ;  vol- 
canoes, 241 ;  plains,  245  ;  rivers, 
247;  harbors,  247;  storms,  250; 
rainfall,  250 ;  horsemanship,  264  ; 
public     lands,    309 ;     herdsmen. 


313  ;    industries,  317  ;   debt,  321  ; 
revenue,  321. 

Hawaiians,  race  and  character  of, 
287  ;  dress,  288  ;  immorality,  288  ; 
daring,  289;  surf-swimming,  289- 
291 ;  boating,  291  ;  dancing,  292 ; 
industries,  292 ;  language,  292 ; 
dwellings  and  food,  293;  feasts, 
294 ;  decrease  of,  294. 

Healthfulness  of  Hawaii,  252. 

Health  resorts,  94. 

Hemp,  Manila,  443  ;  culture,  444 ; 
use  of,  445. 
[efdsmen,  Hawaiian,  313. 

Hibiscus,  the,  254. 

High  and  low  life,  mingling  of, 
108. 

Highlands,  Cuban,  17. 

Hilo,  246,  248,  251,  254;  aspect  of, 
283  ;  vegetation,  284  ;  Americans 
in,  286. 

History,  Cuban,  7-14  ;  Porto 
Rican,  165-170;  Hawaiian,  228- 
236;  Philippine,  323-333. 

Hogs,  145,  218,  261,  263. 

Holguin,  82,  93,  94. 

Homesteads,  Hawaiian,  309. 

Honey,  147,  218,  366. 

Honolulu,  229,  245,  247,  249 ;  dis- 
tances from,  237;  hills  back  of, 
253;  water  supply,  276;  aspect 
of,  278 ;  growth  of,  279 ;  pub- 
lic buildings,  279;  streets,  280; 
markets,  280;  vegetation,  281; 
dwellings,  282  ;  scenery,  282. 

Honolulu  Iron-Works,  317. 

Horses,  Cuban,  118,  145;  gait  of, 
146 ;  endurance  of,  146 ;  treat- 
ment of,  146  ;  Porto  Rican,  217  ; 
Hawaiian,  264,  289;  Philippine, 
364  ;  in  Manila,  408. 

Hospital  methods  in  Cuba,  30. 


4So 


INDEX. 


Hospitality  in  Cuba,  103 ;  in  the 
Philippines,  420. 

Hospitals  in  Havana,  72. 

Hotel  fare,  105. 

Hotels  of  Havana,  75,  104;  of 
Matanzas,  79. 

Hot  springs,  46,  341,  371,  415. 

Houses,  Cuban,  66  ;  colors  of,  67  ; 
furniture,  98,  99;  lack  of  privacy 
in,  99 ;  Hawaiian,  293 ;  Philip- 
pine, 403,  404,  423,  424. 

Humacoa,  176,  202. 

Hurricanes  in  Cuba,  29. 


Idolatry  abolished  in  Hawaii,  231. 

Ignorance,  121. 

Igorrotes,  the,  395. 

Iguana,  the  183. 

Iligan,  414. 

Ilocanos,  the,  388. 

Iloilo,  345  ;  harbor  of,  347,  410. 

Immorality,  Hawaiian,  232. 

Imports,  Cuban,  156  ;  Porto  Rican, 
220,  226;  Hawaiian,  319;  Phil- 
ippine, 465. 

Indians  of  Cuba,  58 ;  of  Porto 
Rico,  165. 

Indigo,  311,  457. 

Indies,  the,  389. 

Indolence,  Cuban,  100,  116;  Porto 
Rican,  206,  211,  215  ;  Philippine, 
418. 

Industrial  future,  159,  225,  469. 

Industries,  Cuban,  149;  Porto 
Rican,  219;  Hawaiian,  292,  317; 
Philippine,  460. 

Insects  of  Cuba,  40;  of  Porto  Rico, 
183  ;  of  Hawaii,  261 ;  of  the  Phil- 
ippines, 366,  425. 

Insurrection  of  1868,  11;  of  1895, 


12;    Hawaiian,  235;   Philippine, 

330. 
Inter-island   Steamship  Company, 

275- 

Inter-island  traffic,  275,  383. 

Interest  rates,  223. 

Iron  ore,  87,  185,  370. 

Iron  wares,  465. 

Irrigation,  276,  301-303. 

Isabel  Segunda,  175. 

Isabella  Province  tobacco,  458. 

Islands,  Cuban  coast,  16 ;  Ha- 
waiian, 237;   Philippine,  334. 

Isle  of  Pines,  16,  24,  32  ;  hot  springs 
of,  46. 

J. 

Jamaica,  rats  in,  304. 
Japanese  laborers,  295. 
Jardin  el  Rey,  24. 
Jardinellos,  24. 
Jardines  de  la  Reina,  24. 
Jardines,  springs  of  the,  22. 
Jatibonico  River,  23. 
Jesuit  observatory,  398. 
Jesuits  in  the  Philippines,  377. 
Juice,  sugar-cane,  140. 
Jungle  fowl,  365. 
Juramentados,  the,  437. 
Jutia,  the,  38. 

K. 

Kahulaui,  238,  241. 

Kailua,  285. 

Kalakaua,  King,  234. 

Kamehameha  I.,  229  ;  II.,  230,  232, 
278  ;  in.,  232  ;  IV.,  234  ;  V.,  234. 

Kanakas,  the,  287. 

Kaolin,  372. 

Kauai,  238,  240,  245,  299. 

Kilauea,  crater  of,  243,  272 ;  erup- 
tions of,  243. 


INDEX. 


481 


Kite-flying,  429. 
Koa  tree,  254. 
Kona  coffee,  299,  306. 
Kona  district,  306. 


Labor,  native,  445. 

Labor,  plantation,  295-297. 

Labor  question,  163. 

Laborers,  139,  418. 

Ladies,  Cuban,  97,  122;  bathing 
habits  of,  102;  Porto  Rican,  205. 

Ladrone  Islands,  324. 

Laguna  de  Bay,  343,  347. 

Lahaina,  248,  285. 

Lake  Ariguanabo,  22. 

Lake  Bay,  342. 

Lake  Bombon,  340,  343. 

Lakes,  Cuban,  22 ;  Porto  Rican, 
174. 

Lakes,  marsh,  25. 

Lakes  of  Luzon,  343 ;  of  Min- 
danao, 343. 

Lala,  Ramon,  422. 

Lanai  Island,  238,  241 ;  sheep  on, 

313- 
Land  crabs,  39. 
Landscape,  Cuban,  26. 
Language,  Hawaiian,  292. 
Languages,  Philippine,  388. 
Lantana  plant,  the,  255. 
Las  Casas,  Luis  de,  10. 
Lava,  varieties  of,  246. 
Lead,  370. 
Leather,  226. 

Legaspi  settles  the  Philippines,  324. 
Lemons  in  Cuba,  35,  162 ;  in  Porto 

Rico,  216. 
Lemurs,  364. 
Leprosy  in   Cuba,  29  ;    in  Hawaii, 

251 ;  in  the  Philippines,  355. 
Leyson  Island,  315. 


Leyte  Island,  335,  341,  344;  hemp 
of,  445- 

Lianas,  the,  33,  255. 

Libraries  of  Havana,  72,  73. 

Lignite,  Philippine,  371. 

Liliuokalani,  Queen,  234;  insurrec- 
tion against,  235  ;  deposition  of, 

23S- 
Lime,  the,  35,  127,  256,  362. 
Limestone  caverns  and  tunnels,  22. 
Limestone  rocks,  20,  177. 
Lingayen  Bay,  349,  382. 
Lipa,  414,  454.  . 
Live-stock,  146,  217,  312,  458. 
Lizards,  366. 

Looms,  Philippine  native,  461. 
Lottery,  Cuban,   112 ;    Philippine, 

428. 
Lowlands,  Cuban,  21. 
Lumber,  226,  312. 
Lunalilo,  King,  234. 
Luneta,  the,  402. 
Luzon   Island,  324,  335 ;    geology 

of,   338 ;     description     of,    342 ; 

lowlands   of,  342 ;    natives,  386 ; 

towns,  414  ;    sugar,  447  ;    coffee, 

453- 

M. 

Macagua,  92. 
Machinery,  161,  163,  471. 
McKinley,  President,  332. 
Madringa  springs,  46. 
Madruga  baths,  80. 
Magellan,  Ferdinand,  323. 
Maine,  sinking  of  the,  13. 
Mairi  plant,  254, 
Maize,  35,  362,  457. 
Majajay,  414. 
Malarial  fever,  29,  353. 
Malaspina,  Mount,  337,  339. 
Malays,  384,  388,   399,  416;    wild 
tribes,  439. 


31 


482 


INDEX. 


Mammee,  the,  36,  37. 

Manatee,  the.  39. 

Mandayas,  the,  437. 

Manganese,  44. 

Mango,  the,  36,  255.  361,455. 

Mangosteen,  the,  362. 

Mangrove,  the,  25. 

Mangyans,  the,  346,  395,  440. 

Manila,  founding  of,  324  ;  taken  by 
British,  328 ;  taken  by  Ameri- 
cans, 331 ;  temperature  of,  352  ; 
streets  of,  381,405;  Chinese  in, 
384 ;  schools,  396  ;  divisions,  399  ; 
river  scenes,  399  ;  bridges,  400  ; 
walls,  400 ;  buildings,  401 ;  luneta, 
402 ;  population,  402  ;  new  city, 
403  ;  dwellings,  403  ;'  home  life, 
404 ;  business  streets,  405  ;  sub- 
urbs, 406  ;  riding,  408  ;  proces- 
sions, 408  ;  merchants,  463. 

Manila  Bay,  347;  battle  of,  331. 

Manila  hemp,  443-445. 

Manufactures,  Cuban,  149-151  ; 
Porto  Rican,  219;  Hawaiian, 
317  ;   Philippine,  460. 

Manzanillo,  87. 

Marble,  46,  372. 

Marianao,  102. 

Mariel,  20,  83. 

Marinduque  Island,  346,  445. 

Marketmen,  116. 

Markets  of  Havana,  75,  76 ;  of 
Honolulu,  280. 

Maro,  Hawaiian  dress,  260. 

Marriage  customs,  103,  433,  440. 

Marsh  region,  25. 

Matanzas,  77,  78. 

Matanzas,  Pan  de,  20,  77. 

Matanzas  province,  soil  of,  21. 

Masbate  Island,  335,  346;  grazing 
on,  458. 

Masquerade,  carnival,  115. 


Mats,  462. 

Maui  Island,  238,  240,  258,  299. 

Mauna  Hualalai,  242. 

Mauna  Kea,  241,  242,  250. 

Mauna   Loa,   241,  242 ;    eruptions 

of,  243,  244. 
Mayaguez,  176,  200. 
Maybon,  437. 
Mayon,  Mount,  337;  eruptions  of, 

339- 
Meals,  Cuban,  105. 
Mestiza  women,  434  ;  dress  of,  435. 
Mestizos,  384-386,  434,  435. 
Metals,  41,  367-370. 
Metal  work,  462. 
Milk,  458. 

Milkmen,  Cuban,  no. 
Mills,  sugar,  139,  212,  305. 
Mindanao  Island,   335  ;  volcanoes 

of,     341 ;    description    of.    343 ; 

Moros  of    389,   437 ;    tribes  of, 

395  ;  coffee  of,  493. 
Mindoro  Island,  335,  346. 
Mindoro  Sea,  334,  336. 
Mineral  springs,  46,  65,  178,  371. 
Minerals,  44,  47,  92,  184,  239,  371. 
Mines  near  Santiago,  87. 
Mining  companies,  43,  44. 
Missionaries  in   Hawaii,  231,  271, 

324,  327  ;  in  the  Philippines,  376. 
Moa  cascade,  23. 
Molasses,  142. 
Molave  tree,  358. 
Molines  garden,  68. 
Molokai  Island,  238,  240,  251. 
Mona  Passage,  174;   Island,  174. 
Money,  157,  158,  223,  321,  467. 
Mongoose,  the,  304. 
Monkeys,  364. 
Monsoons,  351. 
Monte  de  Pan,  77. 
Montero,  the,  116;  dress  of,  118. 


INDEX. 


483 


Montserrat,  shrine  of,  204. 

Moro  chief,  437. 

Moro  Moro  play,  432. 

Moros,  the,  375 ;  history  of,  389 ; 
piracies,  389,  416 ;  hatred  of 
Christians,  390,  392 ;  cruelty, 
390 ;  weapons,  391 ;  home  life, 
391;  fanaticism,  392;  houses, 
424 ;  dress  and  weapons,  436 ; 
character,  437  ;  tax  paying,  438. 

Morro  Castle  of  Havana,  62,  63 ; 
of  Santiago,  86;  of  San  Juan, 
195- 

Mortgages,  223. 

Mountains,  Cuban,  17,  20:  Porto 
Rican,  172;  Hawaiian,  239,  240; 
Philippine,  337,  342. 

Mules,  41. 

Music  in  Havana,  98-100;  in  the 
Philippines,  387,  423,  429. 

N. 

Naguabo,  176,  202. 
Native  revolts,  330. 
Natives,  Christianity  of  Philippine, 

376,  379  ;  manufactures  of  461 ; 

trade  ideas  of,  464. 
Natural  gas,  92. 
Negritos,   the,    386 ;    character   of, 

393 ;  description  of  440 ;  smoking, 

451- 
Negroes,  8,  59,  iii,  190. 
Negros  Island,  332,  335,  345  ;  sugar 

of  447,  463. 
Newspapers,  193,  466. 
Niihau  Island,  238,  240,  24S  ;  sheep 

on,  313. 
Nipa  palm,  360,  455. 
Nipe  Bay,  82. 
Noises  of  Havana,  67,  96. 
Nuevitas,  82,  92. 
Nuuana  Valley,  245,  249,  283. 


o. 


Oahu  Island,  238,  240,  245,  247, 

Oahu  Railway,  237. 

Observatory,  Jesuit,  398. 

Officials  in  Cuba,  11. 

Ohela  plant,  254. 

Ohia  tree,  254 ;  forest,  256. 

Orange,  the,  35,  162,  311,  361. 

Orchids.  254. 

Ostrich  farm,  Hawaiian,  314. 

Oysters,  Cuban,  40,  148. 

P. 

Palace,  Captain-general's,  70. 

Palawan  Island,  336,  346. 

Pali,  the,  283. 

Palm,  royal,  26,  32,  33,  82 ;  uses  of, 

34.  69. 
Palma  brava,  361. 
Palms,  33,  254. 
Panay    Island,    335 ;    deforestation 

of.  345.  348,  356;  sugar  of  447; 

tobacco  of,  410  450. 
Pandanus  tree,  253. 
Papaya  fruit,  256. 
Parks  of  Havana,  67. 
Parque  Central,  69,  98,  100. 
Partagas  cigars,  150. 
Paseo,    Isabel,   69,  98 ;   de  Tacon, 

68-73. 
Pasig    River,    342,   347;    craft   of 

399 ;    course  of  400 ;    overflow, 

410;  ducks  on,  459. 
Pasture  lands,  144,  210,  218. 
Patriarchal  habits,  109. 
Pau,  Hawaiian  dress,  260. 
Pearl  oyster,  366. 
Pearl  River  harbor,  248. 
Peasants,   Porto   Rican,   206,   307; 

indolence  of,  211,  215. 
Pele,  the  goddess,  272. 


484 


INDEX. 


Penal  settlement,  i66. 

Petroleum,  27,  45,  372. 

Philippine  Islands,  discovery  of, 
323,  329 ;  ceded  to  the  United 
States,  332;  geography,  334; 
number,  334 ;  area,  335  ;  geology, 
338 :  volcanoes,  339 ;  harbors, 
347;  climate,  349;  seasons,  350; 
rainfall,  352 ;  diseases,  353  ;  for- 
ests, 356-359  ;  fruits,  361 ;  edible 
roots,  362 ;  animals,  362-367 ; 
metals  and  minerals,  367-372 ; 
government,  373;  religion,  376; 
roads,  381;  population,  384; 
tribes,  393  ;  education,  396  ;  to- 
bacco, 450 ;  industrial  future, 
469. 

Philippine  soldiers,  416 ;  sailors, 
416 ;  sv/immers,  417 ;  houses, 
423  ;  food,  425  :  smoking,  425  ; 
betel-nut  chewing,  426 ;  dress, 
426 ;  women,  427 ;  gambling, 
428  ;  cock-fighting,  429  ;  feasts, 
431 ;  dances,  431  ;  drama,  432  ; 
marriage,    433 ;    untruthfulness, 

433- 
Pigs,    Hawaiian,    261,    263;    wild, 

264;  Philippine,  458. 
Pina  fabric,  462. 
Piiia  Raton  hedge,  122. 
Pinar  del  Rio,  32,  91. 
Pine-apple,  35,  37,  162,  311,361. 
Pines,  32. 

Pirates,  Malay,  416. 
Plains,  21,  172,  245,  342,  346. 
Plantain,  the,  34,  131,  255. 
Plantation  life,  121,  122;  railways, 

274;  laborers,  295. 
Plantations,  sugar,  300. 
Planters,  207. 
Planters,  houses  of,  121. 
Playa,  176,  199. 


Poi  making,  258 ;  eating,  259,  311. 

Ponce,  port  of,  176;  city  of,  199; 
industries,  219. 

Ponce  de  Leon,  165  ,  castle  of,  196. 

Popular  divisions,  50. 

Population  of  Cuba,  10,  57-60 ;  of 
Havana,  65 ;  of  Porto  Rico,  189, 
192  ;  of  Hawaii,  266,  267-269  ;  of 
the  Philippines,  384. 

Porto  Rico,  history  of,  165-170 ; 
prosperity,  168 :  insurrection  in, 
168  ;  invasion  of,  169  ;  cession  to 
the  United  States,  170;  size  and 
location,  171 ;  mountains,-  172  ; 
fertility  and  beauty,  172 ;  rivers,^ 
173  ;  lakes,  174 ;  islands,  174 ; 
harbors,  175;  geology,  177;  cli;:_ 
mate,  178;  temperature,  178; 
rainfall,  179  ;  healthfulness,  180  ; 
plants,  181-183  ;  animals,  183  ; 
minerals,  184;  government,  186; 
religion,  187;  roads,  187;  rail- 
ways, 188 ;  population,  189,  192, 
194 ;  classes,  190 ;  education,  192 ; 
cities,  194 ;  villages,  203 ;  cus^ 
toms,  205  ;  towns,  208  ;  soil,  210 ; 
forests,  211;  scenery,  211;  farm 
crops,  212  ;  manufactures,  219 ; 
commerce,  219-223 ;  finances, 
223  ;  future  prospects,  225-227. 

Portuguese  in  Hawaii,  295. 

Postal  system,  Hawaiian,  277, 

Potatoes,  311,  362. 

Potrillo,  peak  of,  20. 

Poultry,  41,  147,  218,  458. 

Prado,  the,  69. 

Prickly  pear,  the,  256. 

Priests  in  the  Philippines,  327. 

Prison,  royal,  69. 

Processions,  religious,  379,  401,  408. 

Provinces  of  Cuba,  48,  51. 

Public  works,  162. 


INDEX. 


485 


Puerto  Principe,  82,  92 ;  cattle  of, 

144 ;  horses  of,  145. 
Pulu  fibre,  311. 

Puna  district,  243  ;  coffee  of,  307. 
Punch  bowl,  the,  282. 
Punta  Arenas,  175. 

R, 

Railways,  Cuban,   54,    162;   Porto 

Rican,     188;      Hawaiian,     273; 

Philippine,  382,  470. 
Rainfall,    Cuban,    28,    30;     Porto 

Rican,  179;  Hawaiian,  249,  250; 

Philippine,  351,  352. 
Raspberries,  255. 
Rats,  261,  304. 
Rattan,  uses  of  366. 
Reconcentration,  12,  424. 
Reforms,  promised,  ii. 
Regla,  64,  114,  163. 
Religion   in    Cuba,   52 ;    in    Porto 

Rico,  187;    in   Hawaii,  230-232; 

in  the  Philippines,  376. 
Religious  orders,  377 ;  revenues  of, 

378. 
Religious  processions,  379, 401, 408. 
Representation  in  Cuba,  49. 
Reptiles,  38,  261. 
Revenue,  Cuban,  157. 
Revolts,  Philippine  native,  330. 
Rice  culture,  35,  216,  309, 425,  451- 

453- 
Rivers,  Cuban,  21,22;  Porto  Rican, 
173  ;   Hawaiian,  246  ;  Philippine, 

342.  343- 

Roads,  Cuban,  53,  162;  Porto 
Rican,  187;  Hawaiian,  273 ;  Phil- 
ippine, 381. 

Rock  basis  of  Cuba,  27. 

Rocking-chairs,  Havana,  98, 

Rocks,  Philippine,  338. 

Roof,  life  on  the,  99. 


Rosario,  Falls  of  the,  23. 

Rose-apple,  36. 

Royal  palm,  26,  32,  33,  182 ;  uses 

of,  34,  69. 
Running  amuck,  419. 
Rural    population,    116-121,    206- 

209. 
Russell  &  Sturgis,  firm  of,  463. 

s. 

Sabana  Camaguey,  24. 

Sagua  la  Grande,  81. 

Sagua  la  Grande  River,  22. 

St.  Lazarus  Islands,  323. 

Salt  lake,  Hawaiian,  247. 

Salt  production,  46,  185. 

Samar  Island,  335,  344. 

San  Antonio  de  los  Baiios,  92,  95. 

San  Antonio  River,  23. 

San  Cristobal,  91. 

San  Diego  springs,  46,  94. 

San  German,  202. 

San  Jose  de  Buenavista,  348. 

San  Juan,  hill  of,  87. 

San  Juan  Bautista,  165  ;  harbor  of, 
^75>  177  ;  schools,  193  ;  descrip- 
tion of,  194-196;  industries,  219, 

San  Juan  de  los  Remedios,  81. 

San  Juan  y  Trinidad  Mountains,  20. 

San  Vicente,  95. 

Sandal  wood,  254,  258. 

Sandwich  Islands,  237. 

Sanitation,  lack  of,  30. 

Santa  Clara,  92. 

Santa  Clara  province,  21,  146. 

Santa  Cruz  del  Sur,  88. 

Santa  F^  hot  springs,  46,  94. 

Santa  Rita  mineral  springs,  65,  102. 

Santiago  de  Cuba,  settlement  of, 
8,  17 ;  blockade  and  capture  of, 
13  ;  mountains  adjacent  to,  18  ; 
cleaning    of,   30;    location,    83; 


486 


INDEX. 


streets,  84,  85 ;  cathedral,  84 ; 
saloons,  85  ;  sanitation,  86  ;  bay 
of,  86;  Morro  Castle,  86;  mines 
in  vicinity,  87  ;  gambling  pro- 
hibited, 113. 

Santiago  de  Cuba  province,  18 ; 
copper  of,  42  ;  iron,  43  ;  coal,  44  ; 
mineral  wealth,  47;  coffee,  126; 
live-stock,  146. 

Santiago  de  los  Vegas,  92. 

Sapan  wood,  411,  457. 

Sapodilla,  the,  35. 

Scenery,  Cuban,  26,  30  ;  Matanzas, 
79 ;  Trinidad,  89. 

Schools,  60,  61,  193,  270,  396. 

Sea-bathing,  74. 

Seasons,  Cuban,  28;  Porto  Rican, 
179;  Hawaiian,  250;  Philippine, 
350. 

Serpentine  rocks,  27. 

Serpents  in  Cuba,  38 ;  in  Porto  Rico, 
183 ;  in  the  Philippines,  365. 

Sewerage,  67,  163. 

Shark  killing,  262,  291,  417. 

Sheep  raising,  41,  264,  313. 

Shellfish,  large,  366. 

Shipping,  Cuban,  152;  Hawaiian, 
320. 

Shipping  ports,  154. 

Sibuyan  Island,  335. 

Sierra  de  Cubitas,  19,  43,  93. 

Sierra  Luquillo,  172,  181. 

Sierra  Maestra,  18,  20,  43,  44. 

Silver,  42,  369,  467. 

Slavery  in  Cuba,  42 ;  abolition  of, 
51 ;  in  Porto  Rico,  167,  191 ;  in 
the  Philippines,  437. 

Slaves,  8  ;  join  rebels,  51,  59  ;  treat- 
ment of,  191. 

Small-pox,  354. 

Smoking  in  Cuba,  loi  ;  in  the 
Philippines,  425,  429,  451. 


Snakes,  38,  183. 
Soil,  fertility  of,  21,  116. 
Soils,  Cuban,  27,  132  ;  Porto  Rican, 
210;    Hawaiian,    301,    307,    309, 

314- 
Solenodon,  the,  38. 
Spain,  barbarity  of,  12  ;   war  with, 

13 ;    policy    of,   13 ;    cedes     the 

Philippines,  332. 
Spanish  class,  Porto  Rico,  190,  205. 
Spanish  farm  laws,  456. 
Spanish  settlement  at  Cebu,  324 ; 

at  Manila,  324. 
Sponges,  Cuban,  147. 
Spreckles,  Claus,  301. 
Springs,  mineral,  94,  95,  102. 
Star-apple,  35. 
State  dress,  Philippine,  375. 
Steamship  lines,  56,  189,  274,  320, 

383- 

Steere  expedition,  346. 

Stores  of  Havana,  66,  67. 

Storms,  28,  179,  251,  350,  351. 

Strawberries,  255. 

Street  railways,  55,  163,  274. 

Street  scenes,  199,  406,  409, 

Streets  of  Havana,  65,  74. 

Sual,  349. 

Subig  Bay,  349. 

Sugar,  manufacture  of,  141-143 ; 
exports  to  United  States,  154, 
305- 

Sugar-cane,  culture  of,  136,  137 ; 
cutting  and  grinding,  139  ;  crush- 
ing, 140-142 ;  cultivation,  143, 
160 ;  in  Porto  Rico,  212,  213 ;  in 
Hawaii,  299-306;  in  Philippines, 
446-449. 

Sugar-mills,  139,  212,  300. 

Sulphur,  341,  372. 

Sulphur  springs,  437. 

Sultan  Harun,  437. 


INDEX. 


487 


Sultan,  Moro,  375,  437. 

Sulu,  354,  413. 

Sulu   Islands,   334,   336,   346,   375, 

437- 
Summer  resorts,  102. 
Sunday  in  Cuba,  iii. 
Surf-swimming,  289-291. 
Sweet  potato,  35,  76,  116.  216,  310, 

362. 
Swine,  315,  364. 

T, 

Taal,  414. 

Taal  sugar,  448. 

Taal  volcano,  340. 

Tablas  Island,  335. 

Tabu,  the,  230  ;  overthrow  of,  234. 

Tacloban  harbor,  348. 

Tacon  theatre,  71,  115. 

Tagals,  the,  386,  387,  400. 

Tagbanuas,  the,  394,  424;  religion 

of,  439- 

Tamarind-tree,  33,  35. 

Taro  plant,  258,  311. 

Tawi  Tawi  Island,  336. 

Taxes,  Philippine,  374,  469. 

Telegraph,  57,  189,  276,  383. 

Telephone,  189,  296. 

Temperature,  Cuban,  28 ;  Porto 
Rican,  178 ;  Hawaiian,  249 ; 
Manila,  352. 

Territory  of  Hawaii,  266. 

Theatres  of  Havana,  72. 

Ti-tree,  260. 

Ticao  Island,  335. 

Tierro  Adentro,  50. 

Timarau,  the,  363. 

Tobacco,  Cuban,  21,  37;  culture 
of,  132-136;  use  of,  149;  exports 
of,  155  ;  development.  160;  Porto 
Rican,  216  ;  Hawaiian,  311;  Phil- 
ippine, 330,  450,  460. 


Tobacco  region,  50. 

Tondo,  406. 

Towns  and  cities,  62-95,  194,  208, 

278,  399- 
Trade-winds,  250. 
Traffic,  inter-island,  275,  383. 
Transportation,  53,  383. 
Travel,  Cuban,  53  ;  Philippine,  382, 
Tree  ferns,  254. 
Trees  of  Cuba,  26,  32 ;    of  Porto 

Rico,   181 ;    of  Hawaii,   253 ;  of 

the  Philippines,  356-359. 
Tribes,    Philippine,   375,  386,   387, 

394- 
Trinidad,  8,  20,  88 ;  horses  of,  144. 
Trocha,  the,  19,  20. 
Tropical  climate,  effects  of,  471. 
Truck-growers,  116. 
Tulisanes,  the,  396. 
Turquino,  peak  of,  18. 
Turtles,  147,  184. 
Typhoons,  effects  of,  351. 

u. 

United  States'  sympathy  with  Cu- 
bans, 12;  war  with  Spain,  13, 
169,  331 ;  trade  with  Cuba,  154- 
156;  with  Porto  Rico,  221,  222; 
with  Hawaii,  318 ;  treaty  with 
Spain,  331  ;  trade  with  the  Phil- 
ippines, 449,  466 ;  relation  to  the 
Philippines,  469. 

University  of  Havana,  60;  of  St. 
Thomas,  398. 

Utuado,  203. 

V. 

Vacuum-pans,  sugar,  141. 
Valley  of  Yumurri,  78  ;  of  the  Mag- 
dalen, 78. 
Valleys  of  Hawaii,  245. 


488 


INDEX. 


Vancouver,  228,  230. 

Vegetables,  garden,  35,  311. 

Vegetation,  Cuban,  30. 

Vieques  Island,  175,  177. 

Villa  Clara,  92. 

Village  headmen,  374. 

Villages  of  Porto  Rico,  203  ;  of  the 
Philippines,  424. 

Visayas  island  group,  335. 

Visayas,  the,  388. 

Volante,  the,  53. 

Volcanic  structure  of  Hawaii,  239. 

Volcanoes,  Hawaiian,  241-244; 
Philippine,  339-341. 

Vuelta  Abajo  region,  50,  91 ;  to- 
bacco district,  133. 

Vuelta  Arriba  region,  50. 

w. 

Waikiki,  283. 

Walls  of  San  Juan,  196  ;  of  Manila, 

400.  ■»»■ 

War  cloak,  Hawaiian,  261. 
War  with  Spain,  13. 
Water  buffalo,  the,  382. 
Water  supply  of  Havana,  76;   of 

San  Juan,  197  ;  of  Honolulu,  276. 
Wauti-tree,  260. 
Wet  season  of  Cuba,  28 ;  of  Porto 

Rico,  179 ;  of  Hawaii,  250 ;  of  the 

Philippines,  350. 
Wheat,  311,  362. 
White  ants,  367. 
White  labor  in  Porto  Rico,  166. 


Whites  in  Hawaii  229,  235. 

Wild  animals,  312,  364.  < 

Wild  cattle,  263. 

Wild  dogs,  183,  264. 

Wild  tribes,  393,  439. 

Wilder  Steamship  Company,  275. 

Windows,  Cuban,  98 ;    Philippine, 

403- 

Winds,  prevailing  Cuban,  29  ;  Ha- 
waiian, 249,  250. 

Wine-drinking,  106. 

Winter  resort,  Cuba  as  a,  164. 

Women,  Cuban,  119;  Hawaiian, 
288,   290;    Philippine,   427,  434, 

463- 
Wood,  General,  85. 
Woods,  Cuban,  32;  Porto  Rican, 

182;  Hawaiian,  312  ;    Philippine, 

357-359- 
Worcester,  Dean  C,  353,  375,  419. 

Y. 

Yam,  the,  34. 
Yauco,  203. 
Yellow  fever,  29, 
Ylang-ylang,  the,  457. 
Young,  John,  278. 
Yumurri  Valley,  78. 


Zamboango,  348,  412. 
Zamboango  peninsula,  343. 
Zapata  marsh,  25. 


THE  END. 


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